ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF VEDIC STUDIES, Vol. 3 (1997), issue 4 (Dec.) ================================================================= Editor-in-Chief: Michael Witzel, Harvard University Managing Editor: Enrica Garzilli, University of Perugia Technical Assistance: Ludovico Magnocavallo, Milano Editorial Board: Madhav Deshpande University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Harry Falk Freie Universitaet Berlin Yasuke Ikari Kyoto University Boris Oguibenine University of Strasbourg Asko Parpola University of Helsinki email: ejvs-list@shore.net witzel@fas.harvard.edu www.shore.net/~india/ejvs (C) With the authors and the editors ISSN 1084-7561 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- EJVS Vol. 3, Issue 4 (December 1997) CONTENTS ======== Editorial: --------- HOS vol. 52: M. Deshpande, ZaunakiyA PrAtizAkhya released. Article: ------- B. N. Narahari Achar, A Note on The Five-Year Yuga of the vedAGga jyotiSa ============================================================================== EDITORIAL NOTE: We are happy to announce the release of Madhav Deshpande's edition and translation of the Zaunaka PrAtizAkhya of the Atharvaveda. The work also contains the edition of three commentaries, a long introduction and various indexes. The 800 pp. book constitutes vol. 52 of the Harvard Oriental Series. It is available from Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA.at an approximate price of US $ 75. Details: zaunaIkyA caturAdhyAyikA A prAtizAkhya of the zaunakIya atharvaveda With the commentaries caturAdhyAyIbhASya, bhArgava- bhAskara-vRtti and pajcasandhi Critically edited, translated & annotated by Madhav M. Deshpande PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF SANSKRIT AND INDIAN STUDIES, HARVARD UNIVERSITY DISTRIBUTED BY HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS AND LONDON, ENGLAND 1997 ----------- ARTICLE: B. N. Narahari Achar University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA A Note on The Five-Year Yuga of the vedAGga jyotiSa I. Introduction vedAGga JyotiSa (VJ) is the general name by which one refers to the earliest codified texts of astronomy of ancient India, known as the RgjyotiSa (RJ), the yAjuSajyotiSa (YJ), and the atharvajyotiSa (AJ). The authorship of the first two is ascribed to lagadha, whose disciple zuci composed and preserved the knowledge codified by his celebrated teacher, while the author of the third is unknown. The RJ consists of 36 verses, the YJ of 44 verses and the AJ of 162 verses divided in to 14 chapters. The RJ and the YJ recensions are both well known with some variations in readings and have about 30 verses in common. Several scholarly studies of the two recensions have been published [1], as also detailed comparative tables of the corresponding verses of both the recensions [2]. In this note we will concentrate only on the RJ, using the general term VJ also to mean only RJ, because, it is the oldest and is of immediate relevance to our purpose. The RJ preserves the Hindu traditional knowledge of astronomy essential for Vedic sacrifices in a codified form akin to the style of the sUtras, easy for memorization but sometimes difficult for understanding. It packs a wide range of astronomical topics in its 36 verses, some of which are quite obscure. It is more like a pocket reference and gives, among other things, the rules for the determination of proper times for the performance of Vedic rituals. In fact, zuci declares in RJ (verse 2), that he is expounding on the science of time, involving the concept and measurement of time at different levels. One of the distinguishing features of VJ is the use of a period of five years called yuga, which is different from the much larger period also called yuga [3], but which came into vogue much later in Indian astronomy in the siddhAnta period. The five-year yuga of VJ consists of 62 cAndramAsas (synodic months), 1830 days and 1860 tithis (1/30th part of a synodic month) and was taken to commence at the winter solstice. At the time of VJ, winter solstice occurred at the beginning of the first tithi of the zukla pakSa of the month of mAgha. There are two adhimAsas (intercalary months) in a yuga. The sun and the moon are supposed to occupy the same position at the beginning of each subsequent yuga and all the happenings would be repeated in the subsequent yugas in the same way. The astronomical system of VJ was still being followed in India long after the time of lagadha, although the winter solstice was placed in zravaNa at the time of Jain astronomy. VJ has often been criticized [4] for using this yuga period of five years as being "....extremely crude." The accuracy of VJ is a much discussed affair and it has been argued [5] that VJ suffered from two main defects. There are actually 1826.2819 days in a yuga of five solar (sidereal) years, and not 1830, as stated in VJ. Therefore, the winter solstice would start four days earlier after each yuga. Furthermore, there are 1830.8961 days in a period of 62 lunar months and not 1830. Hence, there would be a deficit of about one tithi in a yuga of five years. It appears as a mystery why the Indian astronomers continued to use such an absurd system for thousands of years. Is it possible that the ancient Indian astronomers were not aware of these "defects" ? Some scholars have indeed assumed just this possibility and have leveled their criticism of VJ, and of Indian astronomy as a whole, on this basis. An extreme example of this type of criticism is found [6] in the following: "..the acceptance of this cycle by Indians for a period of six or seven centuries or even more demonstrates among other things that they were not interested in performing the simplest acts of observational astronomy." This harsh criticism of ancient Indian astronomy in general, and VJ in particular, seems to be a case of uncritical application of current scientific ideas to a work so ancient that some parts of it are still obscure. One may also recall the statement of Whitney regarding VJ: "..and when we come to add that jyotiSa (i.e.,VJ) has no definable place in Sanskrit literature or relation to the Vedic ceremonial...we shall see that this famous datum, which has seemed to promise so much, has caused so much labor and discussion,....is nothing but a delusive phantom." This is in spite of the fact that VJ it self declares that it is for the purposes of determining the proper times for the Vedic ritual yajJa! One should try to understand VJ in its own contemporary context, i.e., in the context of the actions of the Vedic people, their motivation, and the conceptual background of their work. The purpose of this note is to point out that the concept of the five-year yuga period is much older than VJ itself and was not chosen by lagadha [7]. It is intimately connected with the Vedic ritual, yajJa, and is but a reflection of a special significance associated with the number five in the Vedic ritual. There is evidence to suggest that the Indian astronomers were in fact aware of the so called "defects", and took measures to "correct" them. Astronomical observations were routinely made and there existed a group of professional astronomers. Only the fact that VJ is deep rooted in the Vedic ritual of yajJa and is an integral part of the same Vedic lore of five-fold manifestations can account for the continued use of VJ over thousands of years, its popularity declining only after the importance of the Vedic ritual yajJa itself had declined. II. The Yuga Concept: The yuga period of five years, whose constituent years are called saMvatsara, parivatsara, idAvatsara, anuvatsara, and idvatsara, has been in use since Vedic times. For example, in Rgveda (RV 7.103.7-8) saMvatsara and parivatsara are mentioned. The taittirIya saMhitA (TS 5.5.7.1-3), the vAjasaneyi saMhitA (VS 27.45 and VS 30.16) and the taittirIya brAhmaNa (TB 3.4.11 and TB 3.10.4 ) give the names of all the five years, although, there is some variation in the names. The TS calls them saMvatsara, parivatsara, idAvatsara, iduvatsara, and vatsara, while the VS and the TB call them saMvatsara, parivatsara, idAvatsara, idvatasara, and vatsara respectively. The length of the solar year was known to be a little more than 365 days, although the year was roughly taken to consist of 12 months of 30 days each (360 days = sAvana year). taittirIya saMhitA (TS 7.1.10) says that 5 days more are required over the sAvana year to complete the seasons and that 4 days are too short and 6 days are too long. The scheme of adding intercalary months is also of Vedic origin as is evident from Rgveda (RV 1.25.8). The two intercalary months in a yuga are called aMhaspati and saMsarpa (TS 1.4.14). It is clear, therefore, that the five-year yuga system and the scheme of two intercalary months are much older than RJ and must have been in practice for a long time before they were codified by lagadha. It is also evident that the five-year yuga system with the associated scheme of two adhimAsas continued to be in use in India for a very long time. It also occurs in later texts such as mahAbhArata (paJcame-paJcame varSe dvau mAsAv upajAyate; MBh 4-47), and kauTilya's arthazAstra (paJca saMvatsaram yugam iti; AZ 2.20.69.71). garga saMhitA, and paitAmaha siddhAnta all refer to the five-year yuga period of VJ. It has already been noted that the Jain astronomical text, sUryaprajJapti, mentions it (tA paJca samvaccharA; sUtra 54). The Buddhist text zArdUlakarNAvadAna also reflects the use of the five-year yuga of VJ. III. The Five-year Yuga: Why? The answer to this question can be found in VJ, its Vedic sources, and in the close connection between jyotiSa and yajJa. The purpose of VJ is described in the verses: kAlajJAnaM pravakSyAmi ...yajJnArthakAlasiddhaye(RJ 2-3) "I shall describe [systematically] the science of time for the purpose of determining the appropriate time for [different] yajJas ." VJ is not a mere civil calendar, but one whose purpose is a highly religious one, that of determining the proper times for Vedic rituals. The importance of the Vedic ritual itself is described in the following verse: vedA hi yajJArtham abhipravRttAH.....yo jyotiSaM veda sa veda yajJAn (RJ 36). "The Vedas have indeed been revealed for the purpose of the performance of yajJas. [But the yajJas are to be performed in different segments of time as appropriate.] Therefore, only he who knows [the science of time, namely] jyotiSa, understands fully the [performance of] yajJas." Thus VJ not only specifies the role of jyotiSa in the ritual yaJja, but describes the interdependence of jyotiSa and yajJa also. It also points to a strong connection between the five-year yuga concept and the ritual yajJa. IV. Every Thing is Five-fold The ritual of yajJa is central to the Vedas. The basic premise of yajJa is to establish explicit equivalence between two different objects by means of ritual action. For example, in agnicayana, a huge altar consisting of five layers is constructed in the general shape of a falcon, for, "he who is desirous of heaven may construct a falcon-shaped altar". By ritual action, the equivalence of the following are established: falcon = altar, sacrifice = altar, and finally, sacrificer = altar. Therefore, sacrificer = falcon and hence the sacrificer can fly to heaven. However, if the falcon is not well made the bird will not fly. Altars are constructed according to strict geometrical principles as explained in zulbasUtras. There exists another set of equivalence principles related to astronomical concepts. For example, in agnicayana, prajApati, the Lord of Creation, is identified with time, in fact, the year (prajApatir eva saMvatsaraH..., JB II.393; and: sa eSa prajApatir eva saMvatsaraH, KB VI.15). Hence, it takes a year from the moment the yajamAna has generated agni in a special pot called ukhA (which he carries around with him), to the culmination in a twelve-day ritual at the end. The altar as well as the yajJa is identified with prajApati. It is this identification of prajApati with time on the one hand and the ritual yajJa on the other that holds the secret of the five-year yuga period. The very first verse of RJ invokes prajApati in the following terms: paJcasaMvatsaramayaM yugAdhyakSaM prajApatiM dinartvayanamAsAGgaM praNamya zirasA zuciH... (RJ -1) "(I, ) zuci, salute with a bowed head, prajApati, who is the embodiment of the five-year period and who presides over the yuga, and who has for his limbs, time segments like the day, the seasons, the [northerly and the southerly] courses of the Sun, and the month..." This characterization of prajApati by a five-fold embodiment in time, is also reflected in the five-layer structure of the altar which is also identified with him. In fact, the five brick layers of the altar in agnicayana have the same names as the years in a five-year yuga period. A five-fold characterization is a preferred way of discussing items with reference to the ritual yajJa (i.e., adhiyajJa). There are five yajJas: bhUtayajJa, manuSyayajJa, pitRyajJa, devayajJa, and brahmayajJa. The altars can also be five in number: gArhapatya, AhavanIya, dakSiNAgni, sabhya, and Avasathya. There are five requisite materials for the yajJa, which are described in ZB (ZB 1.1.1-8), and it is said there that the sacrificer gathers these five materials ( "paJcasaMbhArAn saMbharati"). The five-fold nature goes beyond the ritual (referred to by adhiyajJa) to the material world (referred to by adhibhUta) and also to the Self (referred to by adhyAtma) . This is all described in TU beginning with the following declaration: athAtaH saMhitAyA upaniSadaM vyAkhyAsyAmaH paJcasv adhikaraNeSu (TU 1.3.1) "Now we shall explain the upaniSad of the saMhitA under five headings" It is said in (TU 1.7.1): pRthivy antarikSaM dyaur dizo 'vAntaradizaH agnir vAyur Adityaz candramA nakSatrANi Apa oSadhayo vanaspataya AkAzaAtmA ity adhibhUtaM " The earth, the sky (antarikSa), the heaven, the main quarters and the intermediate quarters (which constitute the set of five worlds); fire, air, sun, moon and the stars (the set of five- devatAs); water, plants, trees, ether and the Atman (the set of five living beings); thus with regard to the material existence." Described above are three sets of five members each as external and gross embodiment of the Supreme. This is followed in (TU 1.7.2) by: athAdhyAtmam prANo vyAno 'pAna udAnas samAnaz cakSus zrotraM mano vAk tvak carma mAMsaM snAvAsthi majjA "Now, to the self; prANa, vyAna, apAna, udAna, and samAna (the set of five vital airs), eyes, ears, mind, speech, and touch (the set of five senses), skin, flesh, muscle, bone, and marrow (the set of five constituent elements of the body)." This enumerates the three sets of five objects each, which are internal and subtle embodiment of the Supreme. Again, in (TU 1.7.3): etad adhividhAya Rzir avocat pAGktaM vA idaM sarvaM pAGktenaiva pAGktaM spRNoti "After having analyzed all this the sage declared: all this is verily pAGkta (five-fold); by the pAGkta, indeed, does one secure the pAGkta" Thus the TU declares every thing as having a five-fold nature and later, goes on to describe the five kozas (sheaths) that cover the Self as the annamaya, prANamaya, manomaya, vijJAnamaya, and Anandamaya kozAs. This is also echoed in BU (BU 1.4.17): sa eSa pAGkto yajJaH pAGktaH pazavaH pAGktaH puruSaH pAGktam idaM sarvaM yad idaM kiJca "so this yajJa is five-fold, five-fold are the animals, five-fold is the person, five-fold is all this world, whatever there is." Thus zruti declares that there is a five-fold principle that pervades the entire universe and that the principle is manifest in the external and gross aspects as well as in the internal and subtle aspects. V. Time Units in VJ While the main attention so far has been focused on the five-year yuga period, there are other intervals of time, such as cAndramAsa, tithi, kalA, muhUrta, and kASThA that are referred to in RJ. The relationships among these time units can also be found in RJ. 124 kASThAs = 1 kalA 20 and 1/10 kalAs = 1 muhUrta 30 muhUrtas = 1 ahorAtra (day and night) 2 parvans = 1 cAndramAsa 2 months = 1 Rtu 2 ayanas = 1 year. It is interesting to note that the smallest unit of time, kASThA, is given in terms of the duration of five akSaras: kASThAH paJcAkSaraH smRtAH (RJ-18) The same five-fold principle is operating both at the subtle (kASThA) and at the gross (yuga) level of measurement of time and time itself may be regarded as "pAGkta". This idea is strengthened in view of the paGkti-meter consisting of five pAdas of eight syllables each. The zruti declares, "five-footed is the paGkti-meter and yajJa is a "pAGkta"." It may be noted in passing that according to zatapatha brAhmaNa (ZB 10.4.2.23), the number of paGktis in Rgveda [8] is equal to 10800; this is equal to the number of muhUrtas in a year and also to the number of bricks in the altar. The five-year yuga is simply another manifestation of "pAGktam idaM sarvaM" and it is this strong dictum of the zruti that perpetuated the use of the five-year yuga period for such a long time. VI. "Accuracy" of VJ It must have been known even in those early days that 62 synodic months take almost a day more than the 1830 days given in VJ, because at the end of one yuga, must have been observed to occur on the day next to the 1830th. Observation at the end of the next yuga would have clearly shown this (because of the cumulative error), the moon would have been well up in the sky at sunrise showing the day to be caturdazI or even trayodazI, so that amAvAsya would occur one or two days later. The priests would never have failed to notice this, because, it was their duty to observe the last disappearance of the old moon and the first appearance of the new moon. This is connected with the "upavasatha" and referred to in the following verse: caturdazIM upavasathas tathAbhavet yathodito dinam upaiti candramAH mAghazuklAhniko yuGkte zraviSThAyAM ca vArSikIM (RJ-34) " That caturdazI tithi on which the moon rises [almost] as the sun rises is the upavasatha. [Any characteristic of] the first day of the bright fortnight of the month of mAgha links [the nakSatra of] the last day of the previous year [zravaNa] with zraviSTha [i.e., it is common to both]." The upavasatha day is the day of piNDapitRyajJa, and the day previous to that is AdhAna or dIkSA day and the next day is the iSTi day. Moon rising almost at sunrise indicates that the time is near new moon. By contrast, if the moon rises well before the sun rises, it is technically called uddRSTa, and all excepting vAjasaneyIs and baudhAyanas have to perform an expiatory rite, or prAyazcitta, to nullify the evil that will accrue and perform punarAdhAna, if the AdhAna had already been done the previous day. This shows that the priests had to be very careful to avoid such a thing happening and they must have had rules formed from observations over a long time to fix the calendar. The fact that the Vedic priests did indeed make observations is evident from the statement in the verse RJ-24 regarding ascertaining calculations by observations (ity upAya samuddezaH...). The fact that there were astronomers who made observations is attested to by the reference to nakSatradarza, an observer of stars, in VS (VS 30.10) and to nakSatravidyA, the discipline of astronomy, in chAndogya upaniSad (CU 7.1.2; CU 7.7.1). It has been suggested that a day could have been tacitly added to the yuga after its end (just as we add a day in the leap year) and not counted in the calculation. This would certainly avoid the most patent discrepancy. However, as 62 synodic months = 1830.8965 days, another type of error will accumulate and an intercalary month would have to be dropped after 6 yugas and another intercalary month after 7 yugas, and this has to be repeated. It may be noted that it is not necessary to know this rule to drop the intercalation. Mere observation of the moon in the zraviSTha region of the sky would have shown the need for an intercalation [9]. VII. Conclusions We have clearly demonstrated that the five-year yuga cycle of VJ is much older than VJ and was not selected by lagadha. It continued to be in use for a very long time after VJ, its popularity is due to the Vedic dictum of being pAGkta. Vedic priests did make observations and must have formulated rules for overcoming, as far as possible, whatever calendrical shortcomings a five-year cycle might imply. This would have been necessary to avoid penalties in obeying the requirements of upavasatha. The Vedic dictum of pAGkta would thus explain the enigma of the five-year yuga which has puzzled the scholars of VJ for over a century. When viewed in the light of "pAGkta" dictum, the criticism of Pingree would not appear to be valid. List of Abbreviations AJ atharva jyotiSa AS arthazAstra of kauTilya BU bRhadAraNyaka upaniSad JB jaiminIya brAhmaNa KB kauSitakI brAhmaNa MBh mahAbhArata RJ RgjyotiSa RV Rgveda TB taittirIya brAhmaNa TS taittirIya saMhitA TU taittirIya upaniSad VJ vedAGga jyotiSa, here also used for RJ VS vAjasaneyi saMhitA YJ yAjuSajyotiSa ZB zatapatha brAhmaNa Bibliography [1]. Weber, A., Ueber den Veda-kalendar namens Jyotisam, Abhandlungen d. Akad. d. Wiss. (Berlin, 1862); Thibaut, G., Contributions to the explanation of the jyotiSa-vedAGga, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, xlvi, 411-437, 1877; Dvivedin, S., (ed.) vedAGga-jyotiSa, with somAkara's commentary (Benares, 1908); Shamasastry, R., vedAGga-jyotiSa with commentary and translation, (Mysore, 1936); Sastry, T. S. K., vedAGga-jyotiSa of lagadha, (New Delhi, 1985); Yajnik, H. M., vedAGga-jyotiSa, Ahmedabad, 1985; Sen, S. N., in: A concise history of science in India, Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., and Subbarayappa, B. V.,(ed.), New Delhi, 1971. [2]. Dixit, S. B., bhAratIya jyotiSzAstra, (Prayag, 1957); Yajnik, H. M., vedAGga-jyotiSa, (Ahmedabad, 1985). The list of topics is condensed from Yajnik, H. M., vedAGga-jyotiSa, in: Issues in Vedic Astronomy and Astrology, Pandya, H., Dixit, S., and Kansara, N. M., (ed.) (Delhi, 1992), p. 52. [3]. In current parlance, one mahAyuga consisting of kRta, tretA, dvApara, and kali yugas lasts for 4,320,000 years. [4]. Pingree, D., " Astronomy and Astrology in India and Iran", Isis, liv 229-246, (1963) [5] Sastry, T. S. K., vedAGga-jyotiSa of lagadha, (New Delhi, 1985); Shukla, K. S., "Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective" in: History of Oriental Astronomy, (ed.) Swarup, G., Bag, A. K., and Shukla, K. S., Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, 1987). [6] Pingree, D., "The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy", Journal of History of Astronomy, iv, 1-12, (1973). [7] Pingree in [6] seems to think there was an Iranian influence on lagadha. [8] This is based on the syllable count of 432000, given in the ZB; but, the actual number of syllables in the canonical text is far less. A full discussion of this point, however, is beyond the scope of the present paper. [9] Sastry, T. S. K. 1985; in fact, Muslims do so even today by observing the crescent moon. (C) COPYRIGHT NOTICE: A COPY OF THIS ARTICLE MAY BE MADE FOR PRIVATE STUDY. ALL COPIES MADE FOR WHATEVER PURPOSE MUST INCLUDE THIS COPYRIGHT NOTICE. THE TEXT MAY NOT BE MODIFIED IN ANY WAY NOR MAY IT BE REPRODUCED IN ELECTRONIC OR ANY OTHER FORMAT WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF. THE ABOVE MATERIALS WERE FIRST PUBLISHED IN THE ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF VEDIC STUDIES. ALL INQUIRIES ARE TO BE SENT TO THE EDITORS. ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF VEDIC STUDIES, Vol. 3 (1997), issue 4 (December) ================================================================= Editor-in-Chief: Michael Witzel, Harvard University Managing Editor: Enrica Garzilli, University of Perugia Technical Assistance: Ludovico Magnocavallo, Milano Editorial Board: Madhav Deshpande University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Harry Falk Freie Universitaet Berlin Yasuke Ikari Kyoto University Boris Oguibenine University of Strasbourg Asko Parpola University of Helsinki email: ejvs-list@shore.net witzel@fas.harvard.edu www.shore.net/~india/ejvs (C) With the authors and the editors --------------------------------------------------------------------------