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A brief historical account of various key stages in the development of schools broadcasting in Britain. Currently in four sections, and with links for further reading at the bottom.

BBC Wireless Programme, 1924
The Middlesex Experiment, 1952
I.T.V. Goes To School, 1957
BBC Television Service, 1957

BBC Wireless Programme 1924

Q: What is worse than a dull classroom lecture?
A: The same lecture broadcast over the radio
- James M. Theroux, 1978

Recording a special programme to schools, 1924
picture: BBC

The first proper schools broadcast: Walford Davies in the BBC's Savoy-Hill studio presenting his music lecture. He is aided by an audience of 25 schoolchildren and six choirboys from the Temple Church.

Schools broadcasting began, on the wireless, in 1924, when national broadcasting itself was barely two years old, the BBC having begun transmissions late in 1922. The latest education reforms called for university standard teaching to reach the elementary schools, and broadcasting was seen as a possible means to that end.

The first experimental radio programme for schools went out on the afternoon of Tuesday 26th February 1924 over the BBC's Glasgow station (5SC), with the backing of the Glasgow Education Authority. Since 5SC's scheduled programmes began at 3pm that day, the schools programme presumably went out before this, around 2pm. It was officially received in just one school, over a specially-installed set of loud speakers, and observed by school inspectors and members of the newly formed Glasgow Edcuational Broadcasting Advisory Committee. It consisted of various short talks on Scottish poetry, history and literature, along with short musical extracts. Despite reportedly adverse reception conditions, this very early demonstration was considered a success.

The first large-scale schools broadcast went out at 3pm on Friday 4th April 1924. It is sometimes referred to (by the BBC) as the first national broadcast, but this is not true as it was broadcast over the London transmitter (2LO) only. It was a lecture on music given by Sir Henry Walford Davies; the first programme concentrated on Shakespeare's songs, and included Where the Bee Sucks and It Was A Lover and His Lass amongst others. Davies enlisted the audience of schoolchildren present in his studio in a demonstration of how to form melodies, and had six choirboys sing Jerusalem. This broadcast was officially made to 70 schools, elementary and private, who had been loaned loud-speaker setups for the purpose. It is estimated to have reached some 10,000 children, as well as several observing schools inspectors. The principal useful finding of this broadcast was that boys' voices tended to sound shrill when broadcast over loud speakers.

The second programme the following week was a natural history talk given by the president of the British Empire Naturalists' Association, and other speakers followed. However, it is Walford Davies who has become indellibly linked with the early days of schools broadcasting, his unrehearsed (leading to complaints of his speaking too quickly and unclearly) music appreciation speeches becoming a staple of 1920s radio.

The BBC's first specialist schools broadcast producer, George Dixon, recalled the crisis he faced when handling a live broadcast in which Sir Walford intended to use two musical excerpts, in a studio without a gramophone. "Clutching the two discs, I dashed down a couple of staircases to another studio, got disc 1 on in the nick of time, and sat down with relief - on disc 2. Just time to hare upstairs again and warn Walford. He didn't bat an eyelid. 'Well children, I did promise you an attractive piece by Brahms, but Mr Dixon has just sat on it.'"

This site is not really about radio, so I'll skip over the next 28 years. May add a bit here eventually about stuff like programme formats (Music and Movement!), interruptions by the war and the death of the king and such like, but for now we move ahead to the age of television...

Websites related to the early days of schools radio:
>	Mollie's Memoir - Memories of a School Recollections of a being at school in the 1920s, including early radio broadcasts. "After the programme, one of the girls had to stand and give a vote of thanks for the privilege"
>	A Friendly Glimpse History of a primary school. Interesting to note records of a school using the wireless for lessons in early 1923 - long before broadcasts specifically for schools began. "It is noted that on 28th March 1923, pupils were listening to selections from Shakespeare - their reactions to it are not recorded!"
>	AIM25: RCM: DAVIES, Sir (Henry) Walford (1869-1941) For the serious historian interested in this area - the Royal College of Music's collection of Walford Davies' papers includes "typescripts of Davies' BBC radio broadcasts to schools on music with printed scholars' manuals"
>	Short Trousers and Sherbert Fountains: Schools Radio This wonderful personal website offers a lengthy collection of fond recollections of listening to - and moving to - schools wireless in the 50s, 60s and 70s, and is a brilliant read all in one place, practically the only reference to this material anywhere on the internet. Also, HERE's the original newsgroup thread (via Google Groups) which inspired the page, and HERE's the lyrics to the classic Victoria Wood song about having to do Music and Movement.

The Middlesex Experiment 1952

Television for schools would be nothing less than a perfect disaster,
driving another wedge between the teacher and the pupil
- Archbishop of Canterbury, March 1952 (paraphrased)

In 1948, two years after television broadcasting resumed following the war, the BBC asked the School Broadcasting Council to help it to develop a schools television service. The first concrete examples of schools television in Britain went out in May 1952, to six Middlesex schools that were close enough to be individually connected to the BBC studios at Alexandra Palace. This is properly referred to as closed circuit television - the sound got from the BBC studio to the TV receivers by telephone line, while the pictures were sent on a special microwave frequency from the transmitter.

Middlesex pupils watching the first schools programmes
picture: The Times

Pupils in Middlesex watching the first schools television programmes. Two sets were installed in most classrooms since the biggest screens available at the time were 15- or 18-inches - not enough for whole class viewing.

Twenty programmes were shown in this highly experimental pilot service, at 2:10pm every weekday starting from Monday 5th May 1952. The point of this experiment was not for the programmes to be especially educational in themselves, but to try out various ways of presenting the material to see which ones the kids responded to best, under the watchful eye of Education Officers. Like all schools television prior to the mid-1960s, they were intended for a secondary school audience - just under one thousand 11- to 15-year-olds watched the programmes.

The programmes were grouped into five different series, dealing with Science, Aesthetics, Current Affairs, Travel and The Industrial Scene, one on each weekday. Some specific programmes shown included How An Aeroplane Stays Up, which showed a teacher carrying out air pressure experiments, combined with some film, model and diagram work; A Modern Dairy Farm, which tried using an outside broadcast, and featured a cattle expert and a farmer pointing out the features of a good dairy cow; and Movement and the Artist's Eye, which looked at representations of movement in pictures, using blackboard sketches, close-ups of paintings and stills from ciné films.

BBC requires Assistant Head of School Broadcasting (Television)

The BBC's original ad for an assistant head of schools television. In common with BBC practice, applications close in just five days. Education was unimpressed, interpreting this as a conspiracy to keep the jobs within the BBC: "having at last screwed up the determination to put the advertisements out (...) why reduce the business of public advertisement to little more than a farce?"

The very first schools television programme, How Muscles Work was a generally praiseworthy presentation, a lecture given by a teacher from Hertfordshire, taking advantage of all sorts of visual aids - including animations, a human skeleton and close-up shots of a frog's calf muscles. The second programme was widely derided: seeking to evoke the life of a lighthouse keeper, the programme exclusively featured (fictional) interviews with people who knew the man, and never showed he or his lighthouse on-screen. The programme was intend to provoke children's imagination rather than demonstrate facts, but ended up being criticised for failing to take advantage of its visual medium, just wasting time showing actors' faces. "Pointedly dull," said the Middlesex Education Committee's report.

All in all, the programmes were not very satisfactory. There was considerable criticism that there was too much direct lecturing to camera, and too much commentary over the pictures. There were also complaints that the programmes just copied other educational media instead of coming up with anything that only TV could do. In the end, nothing very startling came out of it and there were no amazing educational advances.

That was by no means the end of the matter though. There were plans for a larger-scale, main experiment but this was not immediately possible due to financial constraints (both within the BBC in the making of programmes, and for the LEAs seeking to provide television sets to schools). Planning continued. In September 1953, the School Broadcasting Council (the BBC's self-established regulating body which already oversaw the radio broadcasts) wrote to the Association of Education Committees seeking support for a Main Experiment in schools television, to be broadcast nationally at an unspecified date.

In November 1954, the BBC agreed to begin a broadcast experiment, but only after they'd started up a second TV channel, probably in late 1957 or early 1958. On 19th August 1955, they advertised for four producers and one (assistant) head of department in schools television. In late November 1955, Enid Love - a former headmistress of Wokingham County Girls' Grammar School and SBC officer - was appointed Assistant Head of School Broadcasting, Television, later promoted to full Head. The BBC continued to make extensive consultations with the SBC, the Ministry of Education, teachers' unions and so on. Over the following year and a half, many Local Education Authorities agreed to take part in the new experiment, and extensive consideration was given in the educational world to obtaining and installing suitable television receiving equipment. Almost a decade after it was first proposed, the schools television experiment was about to reach national screens.

I.T.V. Goes To School 1957

The strangest thing about the Associated Rediffusion plans for schools T.V.
is the ineptitude with which the first announcements have been made.
- Education, 18 January 1957

ITV Goes To School: An Experimental Term

ITV Goes To School: This guide booklet accompanied the very first schools programmes on British television, in May 1957.

TVTimes (Midlands) TV listing for 13th May 1957

The TVTimes (Midlands edition) listing for Britain's first schools television broadcast. There were different blackboard symbols for each different series.

On Tuesday 18th December 1956, the newly-formed Independent TeleVision company Associated-Rediffusion Limited held a General Meeting to adopt its first ever accounts (a loss of two million pounds). The chairman, J. Spencer Wills, rejected press criticisms of a lack of balance and minority interest programmes by listing the range of material broadcast - news, symphony concerts, highest grade drama... "and we are now proposing a series of schools broadcasts sometime next year, as we think the medium of television has great and useful potentialities in this direction."

An extremely important announcement about an entirely new form of broadcasting had been made. Unfortunately, it was made incidentally in the minutes of the company's meeting, not made to any educational or broadcasting organisations. In fact, as it turned out Associated-Rediffusion had been developing its schools service without any consultation with the schools, the teachers' unions, the Department of Education or anybody at all.

Teachers were concerned and annoyed - suspicious that ITV was trying to break into "the sacred enclosure" without bothering to ask what sort of material would be useful. ITV appear to have been rather surprised by this hostile reaction from the audience which they were trying to serve, and they set about hiring as many respectable educationalists as they could find. Boris Ford, MA, lecturer and reasonably well-known editor of Universities Quarterly and the Journal of Education, was appointed head of schools broadcasting just after Christmas 1956. Shortly afterwards, Sir John Wolfenden, Vice-Chancellor of Reading University, became head of the Educational Advisory Council, advising the producers on the broadcasts. The rest of the council resembled a brainstorming of all those involved in school education - comprised mainly of headmasters and professors, plus a Youth Employment Officer, a museum curator and a paediatrician. The schools project was also receiving considerable attention from Paul Adorian, managing director of Associated-Rediffusion who, as a radio engineer years earlier, had attempted to persuade the BBC to mount full-scale schools television broadcasts. It was he who had initiated the experiment at Associated-Rediffusion.

By February 1957, the first programme ideas were released, including a series "designed to introduce a Dickens novel as something alive and exciting". The Associated-TeleVision Midlands station in Birmingham announced that it would also be showing the programmes, but Granada Television in Manchester dallyed about taking the broadcasts and eventually decided not to, instead concentrating their education efforts on setting up a research scholarship in "some aspect of television". In the end, the programmes were broadcast to twelve counties by A-R London, including London itself, and to a further ten counties by ATV Midlands, including Rutland. By the time the programmes went on the air, Associated-Rediffusion claimed that 85 schools were set up to receive the broadcasts.

It is difficult to imagine that boys and girls of 15
would be much excited by bowls of fruit.
- The Times, 14 May 1957

Planning the first ITV schools broadcasts, 1957
picture: Associated Rediffusion / TVTimes

Planning for the series A Year of Observation. The Head of Schools Broadcasting, Boris Ford, is centre, flanked by two scientists from the Royal Society - Dr D.C. Martin, assistant secretary, and Dr Alan Moore, head of the International Geophysical Year Office.

Filming 'A Year of Observation', 1957
picture: Associated Rediffusion / Education

A Year of Observation being filmed at Associated-Rediffusion's Television House for the summer 1957 term. A presenter at a table with "eminent scientists", discussing their work against a backdrop illustrating the solar system. This was reportedly the best received of ITV's five original series.

The first ITV schools broadcast went out at 2:45pm on Monday 13th May 1957. Later that day, eight MPs resigned in protest, a school was showered in debris from a jet plane struck by lightning, and the country was plunged into darkness by a total eclipse of the moon. None of which had anything to do with the broadcast (probably).

The generally low expectations for the first ITV programmes were matched by generally low evaluations of the programmes when they were broadcast. "It cannot be said that its debut yesterday was sensational," wrote The Guardian. The Times was even less impressed: "rather dull" wrote their special correspondent of the first programme, an appraisal extended to the rest of the week's programmes in the Times Educational Supplement.

The first broadcast was preceded by a brief speech from Sir John Wolfenden and ITA chairman Sir Kenneth Clark, who inaugurated "a new and important adventure" in the use of television. Unfortunately, as Education put it, "both of these performances were more polished than the schools programme which followed."

One of the arguments for schools television being better than just using educational filmstrips was the 'immediacy' of the medium - and these first programmes combined recorded sequences with 'live' studio material. There was an effort to maintain a jovial atmosphere in the studio - scripts for the first broadcast reportedly included what was described as a "rock 'n roll signing-off joke": Oh, before we part, do you know what the young schoolboy said when he found his father reading his end of term report? - See you later, angry pater. Sadly this was not broadcast.

Two of the first term's series were presented by Redvers Kyle, an experienced broadcaster and professional teacher, who gave an informal and friendly performance and occasionally fluffed his lines. He was likened to a student teacher, with a student teacher's faults: "he talked too much and tried to cover too much ground in too short a time." A common criticism of these early programmes was that they were 'overcrowded', packed with hastily assembled bits of material that didn't gel together and were all skipped over too fast.

The reaction of the programme's target audience was rather more positive for Associated Rediffusion: "jolly good" was the evaluation of one 16-year-old viewer, and The Telegraph reported on enthusiastic 14-year-old girls. The BBC's head of schools television Enid Love also watched the programmes, at home with friends, and remarked "A.R.-TV have certainly put a lot of effort into it." The overall impression was that this was an interesting experiment, but that the BBC were likely to do things much better once they got started.

First term's programmes

MONDAYS - Looking and Seeing - (Art) based on the precept that most modern schoolchildren were too busy stamp collecting and making model aeroplanes to actually look at the things around them, this series aimed to deliver "visual shock treatment"

TUESDAYS - The Ballad Story - (English) designed to help children "to enjoy poetry of all kinds with pleasure and understanding", mostly through the use of mime, costume and props and stuff

WEDNESDAYS - On Leaving School - (Welfare) preparing school leavers for the practical and personal problems of finding a job, including what to wear to an interview, "spending one's money to the best advantage" and "Boy and Girl friends" (sic)

THURSDAYS - Year of Observation - (Science) apparently 1957 was International Geophysical Year, so this programme was all about the relationship of the Earth to the solar system, including weather, seismology, radio-communications and so on

FRIDAYS - People Among Us - (Current Affairs) "a series designed to introduce children to some of the many foreigners living among us", following seven immigrants as they returned to their homelands and talked about their experiences of Britain, including an Indian girl, a Hungarian schoolboy and an Italian couple

BBC Television Service 1957

Radio Times BBC-TV listing for 24th September 1957.

Radio Times (Northern Ireland edition) listing for the BBC's first schools television broadcast, with a detailed boxout. A slightly larger version of that picture can be seen over on the left of this page.

Coming out a week or so after the first brash announcement of I.T.A.'s intentions in this direction,
(the BBC's plans are) a reminder of the care and forethought which is being used in Portland Place
- Education, 4 January 1957

The announcement of ITV's plans meant the BBC suddenly found itself with a major rival in the schools broadcasting market. Determined not to be outdone by the commercial upstart, the Corporation ensured that it's own service would also have a full five broadcasts a week, by splitting the proposed Current Affairs programme into three separate series, and running a telerecorded repeat the other programme.

The big advantage of the BBC broadcasts was that they went on the national BBC television network, covering about 95% of the country. The government had in fact been obliged to set a cap on the amount of money each Local Education Authority could spend on the television equipment, such was the demand. By the time the first programmes went out, around 300 schools all over the country had been specially equipped with receivers, though many 'unofficial' sets found their way into the classroom, and at one school in Manchester the pupils had built their own TV. All in all, about 1000 schools were expected to take the broadcasts.

Radio Times header: 'First broadcast of the autumn term'

Radio Times header: 'First broadcast of the autumn term'

Scene from 'Living in the Commonwealth', 1957
picture: BBC / Visual Education

Lumberjacks practicing the sport of log birling in Canada. This is a still from a Canadian film, an extract from which was used in the BBC's first schools TV broadcast, Living in the Commonwealth.

Filming 'Young People at Work', 1957
picture: BBC / Visual Education

Producer Donald Grattan with a cameraman and assistant, on location filming a scene for the BBC's 1957 series Young People At Work - this programme, the third in the series, focused on jobs in the Building profession.

The first BBC schools television programme went out at 2:05pm on Tuesday 24th September 1957, although the schools broadcast actually began at 2pm with a special schools tuning signal. There was no formal introduction to the new service as there had been on ITV: "we shall begin, as we intend to go on, with a straightforward programme for children," wrote Enid Love.

Schools programmes were based in Studio H at the Lime Grove television studios, the special cream and blue set (remember, schools TV was still black-and-white for another 16 years hence) providing a base for all of the programmes. Personalities from mainstream documentary and current affairs series were chosen to present the new programmes: events series Spotlight was hosted by journalist Christopher Chataway, first from the Middle East, and the following week on an outside broadcast from the Metropolitan Police Driving School. The science series was helmed by Arthur Garratt from the adult series A Question of Science, while the programme Living in the Commonwealth was presented by Bernard Braden, chairman of the respected Brains Trust.

Reaction to the BBC broadcasts was largely very positive - "the programme was better than many offered to adults in the evening" said The Telegraph. The choice of presenter for the first programme was widely praised, Bernard Braden's style being jovial but not unduly jokey, and sufficiently "tweedy" for the teachers. As a Canadian presenting a programme about Canada, he gave an impression of knowing exactly what he was talking about and got a lot of information across to the viewers. He was helped by some shrewd visual devices, very clear maps and various exciting film sequences of Canadian activities (tree felling, log rolling and such) provided by the National Film Board of Canada.

Some of the criticisms levelled at the ITV offering were again applied to the BBC's first schools programmes. Programmes were judged to be too full of material for it to all be properly followed and digested; many wanted there to be more active participation between the children and the television; the live television studio sequences were not considered to be particularly 'live' and there was nothing to the television programmes which could not have been equally achieved by a classroom film.

Probably one of the biggest obstacles at this stage in the use of television was teachers' infamiliarity with their operation. The first BBC broadcast was watched at Chorlton Park Secondary School in Manchester, with the headmaster Mr H. Griffiths. As the programme drew to a close, Mr Griffiths approached the set to switch it off. He turned a couple of knobs, lost the sound but could not entirely dispose of the picture. "Who knows how to switch this thing off?" he asked the class. From the back, a girl stepped smartly forward and with a flick of her wrist the set was off.

First term's programmes

MONDAYS - Science and Life - (Science) a telerecording of the previous Wednesday's programme, "to give more than one class in any school a chance to watch these science programmes"

TUESDAYS - Living in the Commonwealth - (Current Affairs) "life in other lands series" about lifestyles, natural resources and stuff in various British Commonwealth countries

WEDNESDAYS - Science and Life - (Science) demonstrating the application of science to help the doctor, and later the weather, providing "the power of visual demonstration"

THURSDAYS - Spotlight - (Current Affairs) looking at current news and the background to it, including "occasional contributions from Scotland and Wales"

FRIDAYS - Young People At Work - (Welfare) intended for school leavers, to show them how other young people are learning to do their new jobs, including farming, nursing and forestry

The People

Sir John Wolfenden was a well-known headmaster, Vice-Chancellor and highly in-demand lecturer. When he was appointed head of Associated-Rediffusion's Educational Advisory Committee in 1957, he was already a high profile public figure as chairman of the parliamentary Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution. He was also an English International hockey player. He was made a Lord in 1974, and died in 1985 on the same day as Wilfrid Brambell out of Steptoe and Son. He published a book of memoirs, but they don't mention his work in schools TV.

Sir Kenneth Clark, the chairman of the Independent Television Authority at this time, was an "arts" kind of guy. He directed the National Gallery, chaired the Arts Council, and is now probably best known for his landmark BBC history series Civilisation in 1969, which he also presented. He became a Lord in 1969, and died in 1983.

Paul Adorian was a leading creative figure in early commercial television and was managing director of Associated-Rediffusion for its entire 13-year existence as a TV broadcaster. He was also a Wimbledon tennis umpire and presided over the infamous longest-ever men's final in 1954. He died aged 77 in 1983, within five days of Kenneth Clark.

Enid Love had been a headmistress before joining the BBC's School Broadcasting Council in 1949, whence she was appointed as the BBC's first Head of School Broadcasting (so the conspiracy theories about the BBC staffing that position from within its own ranks were entirely true). She was lured to Associated-Rediffusion to head their schools department and then left the broadcasting realm for five years, only to return in 1968 as Head of Education Programmes for Yorkshire Television. She was appointed OBE in 1973, and died six years later.
The Royal Television Society had (have?) something called the "Enid Love Award", that I think may be related to imagination in schools programmes. I would greatly appreciate any information about this award, it's purpose, provenance and bestowals if anybody would care to get in touch.

Boris Ford was a respected literary critic and educational bloke, author of an epic 7-volume Guide to English Literature which was in progress when he became the first Head of Schools Television for Associated-Rediffusion. He lasted less than a year in the job, resigning over an interesting dispute involving advertising and censorship, which will hopefully be covered in the next part of this History page, whenever that's written. He lived into his 90s and died in 1998.

John Wolfenden, Kenneth Clark, Paul Adorian and Enid Love
pictures: TVTimes, The Times

(left to right) Sir John Wolfenden, Sir Kenneth Clark, Paul Adorian and Enid Love. Boris Ford is pictured further up the page.

For a sort-of account of BBC schools TV in the mid-1960s, see the section of this website on the Merry-Go-Round Pilots to Look and Read

Websites related to the history of schools television in the UK:
>	Transdiffusion: Look and Learn Excellent overview of the introduction of the British schools television service in the 1950s and its development throughout the 1960s. This article is drawn heavily from the 21 Years of Independent Television For Schools supplement from the May 1978 issue of the journal Independent Broadcasting and as such is rather biased towards the ITV side of things. Transdiffusion is brilliant, but I wish they'd make their individual sources more clear (bit rich coming from me, having written the above plagiarism-rich abomination, I know)
>	Transdiffusion: School Daze Personal recollections of schools television in the early 1970s, including all sorts of fascinating insights on the programmes and the presentation in roughly equal measure.
>	Television House: Schools Television is 10 Yet more from Transdiffusion - this is a reprint of a published article from 1967, giving a broad overview of the first ten years of ITV's schools television service from the point of view of one of its producers.
>	SchoolsTV.com: History A brief, functional history of ITV schools programmes. It is well worth browsing through the rest of this site for the History sections on each of the various eras of ITV Schools and a bit on the BBC too. Also, follow the Programmes > 60s link for some glorious, ancient video clips which seem to be drawn from a documentary on schools TV. I believe that the middle clip, Television in Schools, which the on-screen caption dates to 1961, is actually from a film screened on November 17th 1959(!) to education officers interested in the potential of television. Fascinating to watch colour film of people watching black-and-white TV!
>	TV Cream: Programmes For Schools and Colleges Wonderful, informal guide to pretty much every aspect of schools TV from the 1970s and 80s (except - just to be picky - modern languages). Highly knowledgeable and extremely fun to read. The only thing I'd quibble is the dismissal of pre-1970s schools output as "no-frills" televised lectures. This is a popular accusation perpetuated by, amongst others, then-BBC-Head-of-Schools-TV Alan Rogers in his brief history of the medium in 1989 (though he used the posher word 'didactic'). I think that criticism is certainly true of 1920s and 1930s schools radio, but even by the 1940s significant efforts were being made to vary programmes, and from the very first experiments in schools telly it was considered the ultimate sin to simply film material that could just as well be presented by a 'live' teacher in a classroom. Anyway. Jolly good website this.
>	sub-TV: ITV Schools Schedules Sub-TV is another of the now myriad websites devoted to television graphics and presentation, and their extensive sections on the evolution of BBC and ITV Schools presentation are highly recommended. This particular page is of most interest from the historical point-of-view, as it gives examples of the scheduling of ITV programmes For Schools in various different years.
>	HTW: 1960s BBC Schools Broadcasts This page also focuses on the graphics from just before the programmes rather than the programmes themselves, but it is notable as it concentrates on the look of BBC Schools presentation during the 1960s and very early 70s.

[BIBLIOGRAPHY]

In order to avoid this thing looking like a bloody essay, footnotes and a precise bibliography have been avoided, and I haven't bothered giving a citation for every single quote. The bibliography linked above is valid for the whole of this website - the specific sources used for this page are: relevant articles from The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post, Education, The Manchester Guardian, Radio Times, The Times, Times Educational Supplement, TVTimes and Visual Education; and the books by Kenneth Fawdry and Ian Hartley mentioned in the bibliography. If you want the source of a specific quote or fact above, please email me.

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