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GALÁPAGOS NATIONAL PARK AND MARINE RESERVE - ECUADOR
Brief description: Isolated in the Pacific Ocean 800-1100
km west of Ecuador at the confluence of several ocean currents, cold and
warm, these volcanic islands and the surrounding seas are the largest, most
diverse almost pristine archipelago remaining in the world, a natural museum
of geological, ecological and evolutionary processes. Their varied climates
and extreme isolation, have produced one of the world's highest concentrations
of endemic species including unusual animals such as the land and marine
iguanas, giant tortoises and the many types of finch that inspired Darwin's
theory of evolution following his visit in 1835. One-third of the archipelago's
vascular land plants are endemic, as are nearly all the reptiles, half the
breeding land birds, and almost 30% of the marine species of the archipelago.
Threats to the site: Invasion by large-scale tourism and
unsustainable fishing by mainland fishermen financed by foreign companies
supported by authority, is waging permanent opposition to the restrictions
of the National Park. The resulting growth in population, unplanned urbanisation,
pollution, damaging invasion by exotic species and the resulting degradation
of habitats is unplanned for and barely controlled at present.
COUNTRY Ecuador
NAME Galápagos National Park & Galápagos
Marine Resources Reserve
IUCN MANAGEMENT CATEGORY
II National Park. Biosphere Reserve. Ramsar site (part).
IV Marine Reserve (Managed Resource Protected Area)
Natural World Heritage Site, inscribed in 1978 and 2001.
Natural Criteria i, ii, iii, iv.
One of the first four natural World Heritage sites to be established.
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL PROVINCE Galapagos Islands (8.44.13)
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION The Galápagos (or
Colon) Archipelago is in the east Pacific Ocean 800-1100km west of mainland
Ecuador. The equator runs through Wolf Volcano on Isabela Island. The
Marine Reserve includes all the water within a circumferential zone 40
nautical miles wide. 1°40'N -1°36'S, 89°14' - 92°01'W.
DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT
1936: |
The
Galápagos National Park (GNP) established by Executive Decree
# 31; |
1959: |
Boundary
ratified by decree #17, to include all islands except those colonised
on 20 July,1959; |
1968: |
Boundaries
finally established; effective park administration began; |
1984: |
Recognised
as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program; |
1986: |
The
Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established
by Executive Decree #1810-A to include all waters within 15 nautical
miles (extended to 40 n.m. in 1998) of a baseline joining the outermost
points of the Islands; the zoning plan was not approved till 1992; |
1998: |
Special
Law for the Galapagos (# 278) published and a management plan for
the GMRR drawn up; |
2002: |
Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International
Importance. |
AREA Total: 142,665.14km2. Land: 7,665.14 km2
(97% of the islands). Marine Reserve: 135,000 km2.
LAND TENURE State. Administered by a tripartite
commission of the National Park, the National Fisheries Directorate and
the Navy.
ALTITUDE From -180m underwater to 1,707m (Wolf
Volcano).
PHYSICAL FEATURES The striking volcanic archipelago
of Galápagos rises from a submarine platform on the junction of the Nazca
and Cocos tectonic plates. It consists of 13 islands larger than 10km2
and 115 smaller ones (Barry,1995). The largest islands are Isabela (4,588km2),
Santa Cruz (986km2), Fernandina (642km2), San Salvador / Santiago (585km2),
San Cristobal (558km2), Floreana / Santa Maria (172 km2), Marchena (130
km2), Espańola (60km2) and Pinto (59 km2) (Glynn & Wellington,1983). There
is considerable variation in altitude and area between the islands which,
with their physical remoteness, has contributed towards the species diversity
and endemism of the archipelago.
Geologically, the islands are young, formed by moving slowly eastward
over a hot spot in the Earth's crust. The oldest island furthest east
is 2.4 to 3 million years old, the youngest, Fernandina in the west, 700,000
years old. Most of the larger islands are the summit of a gently sloping
shield volcano, some rising over 3,000m from the ocean floor though Isabela
is formed of five volcanoes. The western part of the archipelago experiences
intense volcanic and seismic activity, culminating in collapsed craters
or calderas: in June 1968, the southeastern floor of the Fernandina caldera
dropped some 300m, the second largest caldera collapse since Krakatoa's
in 1883. The summits are studded with parasitic vents a few tens of metres
high, and frequently flanked by lava flows. Long stretches of shoreline
are only slightly eroded, but in many places faulting and marine erosion
have produced steep cliffs and lava, coral or shell-sand beaches. Other
landscape features include crater lakes, fumaroles, lava tubes, sulphur
fields and a great variety of lava and other ejecta such as pumice, ash
and tuff (UNDP/UNESCO, 1974). The terrain is generally composed of uplifted
marine lava flows which form an uneven surface, strewn with a deep layer
of rounded or angular boulders. Soils are very poor. Freshwater is limited
and among the inhabited islands, only San Cristobal has an adequate perennial
supply for human consumption. Seasonal springs occur on Santa Cruz and
Floreana, and brackish water is available on all islands.
The principal habitats of the Marine Reserve are the rocky sea shore,
the vertical rock walls, the sandy beaches, the mangroves and a few coral
reefs: a coastline of 1336km (Carrasco, 2000). The marine environments
are highly varied and are associated with water temperature regimes differing
in nutrient and light levels. Detailed descriptions of these currents
are given in Glynn and Wellington (1983). The main surface current affecting
the islands is the South Equatorial current that moves from east to west.
This is fed from the southeast by cold waters from the Humboldt Current
and from the northeast, by the moderately warm sub-tropical waters from
the North Equatorial counter-current via the Peru Flow. The most important
undercurrent is the Equatorial Undercurrent that flows from the west,
producing upwellings of cool water rich in nutrients near western shores
(Carrasco, 2000). The seasonally fluctuating North Equatorial Front, which
separates tropical and subtropical water masses, lies just south of the
small northern islands of Darwin and Wolf for much of the year, and these
islands are the most tropical in their marine biota, with extensive fringing
reefs. In western Isabela and Fernandina, upwelling of cool plankton-rich
water from the Equatorial Undercurrent is often intense, particularly
between June and December, adding to the islands' diversity of habitats
and species.. This is caused by deep currents hitting the underwater base
of the islands and submarine volcanoes (bajos) which rise to
near the surface. This upwelling may also influence the southern islands
of Floreana and Espańola, especially their western shores. The central
zones, comprising the east coast of Isabela, Santa Cruz, San Salvador
and perhaps Marchena and Pinta, undergo moderate seasonal temperature
fluctuations of about 10°C (Glynn & Wellington, 1983).
CLIMATE The Galápagos Islands' climate is strongly
influenced by oceanic currents and is very variable: its two seasons result
from the shifting of these currents. The relatively cold Humboldt Current
flowing from the Antarctic flows around and through the islands most of
the year. This current meets warm tropical waters from the Gulf of Panama
at a point north of the archipelago. From January to May the convergence
moves south and the warm current surrounds the islands. The dry season,
caused by the Humboldt current, is characterised by cool temperatures
(17°C-22°C), a fairly persistent fog (garua) that envelopes the highlands
of the larger islands in mist and drizzle, together with southeasterly
winds. The variable shorter hot season caused by the warm current, has
warmer temperatures (23°C-27°C), light easterly winds and seasonal rains
though on the peaks temperatures decline by some 0.9°C for every 100m
of altitude. At the wettest place at sea level, the mean annual precipitation
is 356mm, whilst at 200m above sea level the equivalent figure is 1,092mm.
But the rainfall is variable: approximately every four years El Nińo creates
a major warm water flow during this season, bringing heavy rainfall, and
in 1982 and 1997-8 this warm downpour caused great loss of marine dependent
sea birds and marine iguanas (UNDP/UNESCO, 1974).
VEGETATION According to McFarland & Cifuentes
(1996): "The Galapagos are still one of the most unspoiled areas remaining
on the planet"...with..."approximately 5,500 - 6,000 already identified
species"..."the islands probably harbour 7,000 to 9,000 species"; and
to Snell (1999): "At least 96% of the original biological diversity of
the Galapagos remains intact". There are approximately 560 plant species
and subspecies native to the islands, of which about 40% are endemic.
But more than 500 species are non-native introductions (Snell,1999). This
is a seven-fold increase in the last 25 years, in a very fragile ecosystem.
These occur predominantly around human settlements and in the cultivated
zone. In the native vegetation there are from one to three zones on the
lowland islands: coastal, arid (80-120m), and transitional (100-200m)
which cover the largest area, and three to four more on mountainous islands:
closed forest (200-500m), mossy open forest and mossy scrub (500-1000m)
and summit pampa above 1000m. All benefit from the surrounding coastal
waters through nutrients dropped by marine birds.
Coastal vegetation occurs along beaches, salt-water lagoons and low, broken,
boulder-strewn shores. Protected coves and lagoons are dominated by red,
white, black and button mangrove swamps of Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia
germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erecta with
the halophytic herbs Sesuvium spp., which are rich nursery
and breeding grounds for fish, invertebrates and birds. The arid
zone is found immediately inland from the littoral zone, and is the most
widespread formation in the islands. The principal species are xerophytic
and include the cactus species Bursera graveolens, Croton scouleri,
Brachycereus nesioticus, Jasminocereus thouarsii (R) and Opuntia
echios ssp.
The humid zone emerges above the arid zone through a transition belt in
which elements of the two are combined. This is a very damp zone maintained
in the dry season by thick garua fogs which accumulate through
most of the night and last well into each day. It is dominated by Pisonia
floribunda. Other forest species include sunflower trees Scalesia
spp.and Psidium galapageium, bearing epiphytes. Above
this is a zone dominated by the cats-claw tree Zanthoxylum fagara,
then a zone once dominated by the shrub Miconia robinsoniana (VU)
where low trees are replaced by a dense shrub cover. These zones were
most extensively developed on Santa Cruz Island, but have been almost
totally altered by man for farming and grazing, and only small areas remain
in a natural state. A fern-grass-sedge pampa covers the summit areas of
the larger islands where moisture is retained in temporary pools and sphagnum
moss. Here there are 11 native orchid species, and endemic tree ferns
Cyathea weatherbyana occupy collapsed lava tubes and other small
potholes.
Several introduced plants have had a heavy impact on the landscape of
inhabited islands. Large highland areas on all four inhabited islands
have been invaded by guava Psidium guajava. Orange and lemon trees
Citrus spp. are widespread on San Cristobal and Floreana, Lantana
camara also occupies the humid and lower transitional areas of Floreana.
Quinine tree Chinchona succirubra and mora Caesalpinia bonduc
have altered parts of the humid zone of Santa Cruz and San Cristobal.
Blackberry Rubus adenotrichis is rampant, elephant grass Pennistum
purpureum, African kikuyu grass Pennisetum clandestinum and
other grasses and shrubs have taken over many areas of the inhabited islands,
especially Santa Cruz.
FAUNA The endemic fauna
includes 115 indigenous, 24 introduced vertebrate, and 2000 invertebrate
species. These flourish best on the four largest uninhabited islands (Snell,
1999). There are a few indigenous mammals but all the 35 reptiles, except
for two marine turtles, are endemic. These include Galapagos giant tortoise
Geochelone nigra (VU), with twenty subspecies on different
islands, all of which are endangered, terrestrial iguanas Conolophus subcristatus (VU) and C. pallidus (VU)
and marine iguana Amblyrhynchus cristatus (VU) which is the world's only
sea-going lizard and feeds on seaweed. The endemic snakes are tree racer
Alsophis dorsalia, A. slevini and Philodryas biserialis.
There are numerous lava lizards of the genus Tropidurus and geckos
Phyllodactylus spp. The islands are important for two species of
sea turtle: green turtle Chelonia mydas (EN) and hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (CR) which are common in the
surrounding waters, with the former nesting on sandy beaches.
The native mammalian fauna includes six species: Galápagos fur seal Arctocephalus galapogoensis (VU), Galápagos sea lion
Zalophus californianus wollebacki (VU), rice rat Oryzomys galapagoensis (VU) on Santa Fé, and on Fernandina,
a rice rat Nesoryzomys indefessus (VU), hairytailed bat Lasiurus
brachyotis and hoary bat L.cinereus (Stone et al.,1987).
There are over 1,600 insect species on the islands, 900 being endemic,
but these have been little studied. There is at least one endemic scorpion
species, 80 spider species, several of them endemic, and a number of endemic
centipedes. There are also 80 species of small land snail species, with
Bulimulus represented by over 60 species. Some snails are endemic
to individual islands and others to vegetation zones on several islands
(Jackson, 1985).
The native avifauna includes 57 residents, of which 28 (49%) are endemic
and 31 are regular migrants; a number of vagrants are also present (McFarland
& Cifuentes 1996). Endemic taxa include 13 species of Darwin's finches,
including the Floreana tree finch Camarhynchus pauper (VU) and mangrove finch C.
heliobates (CR) (Collar & Andrew, 1988). Other noteworthy species
include dark-rumped petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia (CR), Galapagos flightless cormorant
Phalacrocorax harrisi (EN), Galapagos penguin Spheniscus mendiculus (EN), lava gull Larus fuliginosus (VU), Floreana mockingbird Nesomimus trifasciatus (EN), Galapagos hawk Buteo galapagoensis (VU), lava heron Butorides sundevalli, nocturnal swallow-tailed gull Creagrus furcatus, Galapagos rail Laterallus spilonotus (VU), thick-billed flycatcher Myiarchus magnirostris, Galapagos martin Progne modesta and Galapagos dove Zenaida galapagoensis (Stone et al.,1987).
Non-endemic threatened birds include the waved albatross Phoebastria
irrorata (VU) and Markham's storm-petrel Oceanodroma markhami. The status of seabirds nesting in
the Galapagos is reviewed by Perry (1984).
The Galápagos is a distinct biotic province. The marine environment has
a mixture of species formed in the convergence of ocean currents which
have transported marine biota from tropical and subtropical regions of
Central and South America and the Indo-Pacific. The level of endemism
is almost 30% (Barry,1995). There are some 306 species of fishes from
92 families. At least 51 species (17%) are endemic to the Galápagos. There
are 12 species of sharks and 6 species of rays. The interaction between
the terrestrial and marine environment is particularly important for the
marine iguana and for 27 of the islands' 57 bird species, especially the
flightless cormorant, the Galápagos penguin and large numbers of nesting
seabirds (Carrasco, 2000).
Dolphins and the endemic sea lions and fur seals are abundant. Several
species of baleen whales, among them the fin and humpback whales Balaenoptera
physalus (EN) and Megaptera novaeangliae (VU), and toothed
whales, including sperm Physeter catodon (VU), pilot and killer
whales are regularly seen. There are 650 species of sea shells, 200 sea-stars
and urchins and 120 crabs (Galapagos Conservation Trust, 2000). The colorful
Sally lightfoot crab Graspus graspus is a distinctive shoreline
species (UNDP/ UNESCO, 1974). Due to the cool waters of the Humboldt Current
during 4 to 6 months per year, the Galápagos is a marginal environment
for coral reefs; 120 species however, are found in its warmer waters.
Accounts of the archipelago's coral reefs are given in Glynn & Wellington,
(1983) and UNEP/ IUCN (1988).
CULTURAL HERITAGE According to the writings
of Miguel Caballo de Balboa in 1586, the islands were first discovered
by the Incas in the middle of the 15th century. In 1535, the Bishop of
Panama christened them Las Islas Encantadas (the later Galapago is the
name for a saddle) and from then on they were used as a stop-off by sailors,
buccaneers and whalers who introduced foreign species and hunted down
tortoises and seals. They were annexed by Ecuador in 1832. In 1835, Charles
Darwin visited the islands while on his voyage in the survey ship Beagle,
and his observations while there on species diversity between the islands,
were later to support his theory of evolution. Despite visits by passing
ships, the islands remained largely unsettled until the second half of
the last century (UNDP/UNESCO, 1974).
LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION In 1949 the population
was 800, in 1990, 9785 and in 2000 it is about 17,000 (Acharya, 2000)
which occupies around 3% of the land area of the islands. Fishing and
cattle were the basis of the islands' economy, with, in 1974, 3,000 cattle
on southern Isabela and 300 on Floreana (UNDP/ UNESCO). This is now augmented
by tourism which employs some 40% of the population. During the 1960s,
outsiders introduced the unsustainable, illegal and now universal methods
of fishing. Many fishermen are economically dependent on the Marine Reserve,
having come in search of a living due to the collapse through overfishing
of the mainland industry. The population increased by 7.8% between 1990
and 1995, 6.1% from immigration and only 1.7% through natural increase.
One 1994 survey showed that the 73% of the population which had arrived
since 1986 were either little skilled economic refugees or transient businessmen.
Neither value the environmental quality of the islands, and both agitate
for the land and marine parks to be opened up for development. Some 80%
live on the islands of Santa Cruz and San Cristobal islands where tourist
facilities are based, on Floreana and on Isabela island for the fishing
(McFarland & Cifuentes, 1996). It iis estimated that the population will
grow to 40,000 in 2015 and 80,000 in 2027. Migration to the islands is
now said to be controlled by laws of the Republic (Carrasco, 2000).
VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES The basic attraction
is the abundant fearless wildlife. From 1967 to the late 1990s, commercial
tourism increased by 8% a year: from 3,000 in 1969 and an acceptable maximum
target of 20,000 in 1985, to an annual average of 62,000 from 1995 to
1999, of which 76% were foreigners arriving in 95 tourist vessels. (McFarland
& Cifuentes,1996): The value of Galápagos tourism to the national economy
is estimated at US$100 million, of which US$6 million are generated by
entrance fees paid by visitors. However most of the profits accrue to
the large tour companies rather than to the local people whose resources
are visited. . All visits to tourist sites should be carried out by qualified
guides, authorised by the GNP and the Navy, but the pressure of tourist
numbers is being met with temporary little-qualified guides from the mainland.
The infrastructure of basic services is well established. Hotels, lodges
and restaurants, are concentrated on Santa Cruz (Carrasco, 2000).
Tourists come to the islands in large cruise ships, or by air and use
6 or 12-passenger tour boats. They are admitted (for the day only) into
three of six zones. There are 21 Intensive Visitor Zones on fifteen islands,
where a maximum of 90 people are allowed simultaneously on shore. 15 Extensive
Visitor Zones on seven islands are open to groups of up to 20. There also
are 19 Recreational Zones on the four main inhabited islands. To preserve
vulnerable animal life and fragile sites the use of licensed guides and
marked trails is obligatory (de Groot, 1983). There are also 64 marine
sites. Tourist scuba diving is increasing (Robinson, 1982; and major dive
sites include Roca Redonda, Punta Vicente Roca (Isabela), Tagus Cove,
Isla Albany (San Salvador), Devil's Crown (Floreana), and Darwin and Wolf
islands; Sombrero Chino is popular for snorkelling (Robinson, 1983). There
are two interpretation centres, one in the National Park and the Charles
Darwin Research Station (CDRS) on Santa Cruz and the other in San Cristobal
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES The Charles
Darwin Foundation was established in 1959 and its Charles Darwin Research
Station, was inaugurated on Santa Cruz Island in 1964. It is jointly supported
by the Government of Ecuador, IUCN and UNESCO and funding comes from a
variety of European and US conservation bodies and from private donations.
It advises the government on conservation, educates the public, trains
scientists and managers and secures international support. Particular
emphasis is placed on work programs which will assist in the management
of the park. According to McFarland & Cifuentes (1996), there have been
over 700 scientific missions to the Galápagos using the CDRS as a base,
and over 6,000 scientific publications. There have been research projects
including studies of the island ecosystems; the ecology of and conservation
strategies for the fauna and flora; geomorphology and climate; and studies
of introduced plant and animal species. A wide ranging account of the
islands is given by Perry (1986). Research conducted in 1997 by visiting
scientists include studies on human impacts on patterns of biological
diversity, and the effects on fauna of heavy metal contamination (CDRS,
in litt.,1997). More than 800 Ecuadorian students have carried out research
which has served for undergraduate or post-graduate thesis work (Carrasco,
2000). Publications of the Research Station are available on the islands
and at the University of Ecuador.
Among the studies of the marine environment, those by Gerard Wellington,
who assisted GNP and CDRS from 1973 to 1975 to evaluate its resources,
are notable. His report recommended the creation of a marine park and
the increase in size of the protected zone around the islands. In the
1980s the major part of the marine investigation was done jointly by the
National Institute of Fisheries (INP) and the CDRS. This partnership produced
more than 30 reports which contributed to the creation of the scientific
database for the management of the resources in Galápagos. Oceanographic
studies were also carried out by the Oceanographic Institute of the Navy
with CDRS. Since 1994, research has been directed more towards providing
information to help with the management, conservation and protection activities.
Some of the more important initiatives have focused on the diversity and
abundance of marine life, to identify zones which should have priority
for protection. Marine studies since 1998 have covered currents, marine
mammals and iguanas, whale sharks, lobsters, sea cucumbers, fish larvae
and corals (WCPA, 2002).
CONSERVATION VALUE At the confluence of three
major ocean currents, cold and warm, and combining sub-Antarctic with
tropical biota, these volcanic islands and the surrounding marine reserve
are the largest, most diverse almost pristine archipelago remaining in
the world, a natural museum for the study of geological, ecological and
evolutionary processes. Their varied climates, ongoing vulcanism and extreme
isolation, has produced one of the highest concentrations of endemic species
in the world including unusual animals such as the land and marine iguanas,
giant tortoises and the many types of finch that inspired Darwin's theory
of evolution following his visit in 1835. One-third of the archipelago's
vascular land plants are endemic, as are nearly all the reptiles, half
the breeding land birds, and almost 30% of the species in the waters around
the archipelago.
CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Until 1959, little importance
was given to the conservation and preservation of the islands and several
species came to the verge of extinction. But since 1960 the Government
of Ecuador has been helping to maintain this living museum by preventing
hunting, particularly of tortoises and seals; eliminating pests such as
goats that have destroyed flora particularly Scalecia spp.; controlling
the pigs that have reduced the tortoise population; and controlling the
fire ant Wasmannia auropunctata which is invading the islands, killing
off young birds and the native ant. Successful breeding programs for the
threatened tortoise and land iguana populations were developed. The first
management plan for Galapagos was approved in 1974, revised in 1984 and
again in 1996. Six land use-zones were established: Absolutely Protected,
Primitive, Special Use, Extensive Visitor, Intensive Visitor and Recreational
(Developed). A series of plans were also prepared for the technical offices
at San Cristobal, Isabela, Santa Cruz and Floreana in 1996. The Charles
Darwin Research Station advises the National Park Service on protective
programmes for the biota, tourism policies and environmental education
programs. In 1999 the System of Inspection and Quarantine for Galapagos
(SICGAL) tied in other Ecuadorean institutions to start to control biotic
invasions such as canine distemper. Then in late 2002 Poza de las Diablas
on the south coast of Isabela Island where flamingo and diablo fish breed,
was declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance; and a management
plan is being prepared to help limit overfishing and invasion by kikuyu
grass. In 2003 the Japanese Agency for International Cooperation (JICA)
began to fund a five year project to support education, conservation and
local development.
In November 1996 the National Institute of Forests and Natural Protected
Areas (INEFAN) integrated the Marine Reserve originally established in
1986 into the National System of Protected Areas under the name of Galápagos
Biological Reserve of Marine Resources. Its administration was conceded
to the Galápagos National Park Service (GNP), providing it with the legal
authority to patrol the marine areas against illegal fishing (Valverde,in
litt.1997;UNESCO,1997). In 1987 a draft zoning plan for the Marine Resources
Reserve was produced. Four types of zone were proposed: a General Use
Zone for sustainable use of the reserve: Artisanal and Recreational Fishing
Zones for the benefit of residents; National Marine Park Zones for human
activities where natural resources are neither damaged nor removed; and
Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted (Jennings et
al.,1994). The definitive version of this plan was finally approved and
published in August 1992 by government decree. In April 1997 an emergency
decree was issued by the President of the Ecuadorean Republic which imposed
restrictions on in-migration and non-artisanal fishing. The decree also
required Congress to draft a Special Law for the Galápagos, providing
a clear legal framework for the management of the islands. A moratorium
was placed on new permits for cruise ships until the year 2005 (Valverde
in litt.,1996). This plan was not implemented, but in 1997 was revised
by INEFAN and staff of the Research Station.
The 1997 plan served as a basis for the formulation of a Management Plan
for the conservation and sustainable use of the Marine Resources Reserve.
This provided for the establishment of participatory and adaptive management,
the definition of human uses and responsibilities for reserve management,
regulations and a system of zoning. The zoning plan for the GMRR is described
by Carrasco (2000). Activities permitted but regulated include fishing,
tourism, scientific research, conservation, boating and military manoeuvres.
The multiple use zone consists mainly of the area of deep water that is
located inside the baseline; the limited use zones comprise the coastal
waters that surround each island and other shallow waters (typically less
than 300 meters deep). The Special Law for the Galapagos was published
in March,1998. This extended the outer marine reserve from 15 to 40km
offshore, establishing a 130,000sq.km reserve for the conservation of
marine biodiversity. It proposed four Special Regulations: to regulate
artisanal fishing, regulate tourism in protected areas, quarantine and
eradicate introduced species and impose environmental controls though
there has been little progress on these since mid-2001 (IUCN,2002). It
was hoped also to create local public awareness and skills, and to control
immigration. The National Park, as well as managing the Marine Reserve,
has jurisdiction over its natural resources. It coordinates the preparation
and supervises the implementation of the management, conservation and
sustainable use plans for the Marine Reserve and the other policy and
planning instruments. A Participatory Management Board is the forum for
users and stakeholders of the GMRR to encourage effective participation
and responsible management by the users. It is composed of representatives
of the artisanal fishing sector, the Galápagos Chamber of Tourism, the
CDRS and the National Park. A CDRS/Park Service project partly financed
by WWF drew up an ecological monitoring system and a list of introduced
species.
Ecuador negotiated a loan of about US$10 million from the Inter-American
Development Bank to develop the management capacity of the Park Service
to execute and maintain certain activities. These are: a) management,
direction and administration; b) control, surveillance and rescue; c)
investigation and monitoring; 4) education, communication and training;
and 5) administration of the use of natural resources (Carrasco, 2000).
By 2002, projects funded by UNESCO/UNF, CDF, GEF, UNDP and the Inter American
Development Bank had assured some progress on invasive species (particularly
cushiony scale), marine conservation, quarantine and institution strengthening.
But the Special Regulations, needed before implementation of the Special
Law for the Galapagos can be enforced, had still not been promulgated
(UNESCO, 2002). In late 2002, partly in response to the movement of shark
fishermen to the Cocos Islands, a marine conservation and sustainable
development corridor was launched between the Galapagos and the Cocos
Islands (800km north), by WHC with Conservation International, IUCN and
the governments of Ecuador, Costa Rica, Columbia and Panama
MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS The Islands are faced
with major threats to their conservation. Chief among these is a decline
in the maintenance of law and authority, aggravated by a minority of influential
islanders. Governmental authority in the islands is divided and commercial
operators are usually ahead of the Park's existing measures of control.
In fact, since the establishment of the Marine Reserve there has always
been economic conflict between the fishing industry and the tourism companies
and conservationists (McFarland & Cifuentes,1996). Little progress on
the 1998 Special Regulations has been made since mid 2001, creating uncertainty
about the future (IUCN,2002).
The terrestrial ecological balance of the islands has been threatened
by the introduction of predators, competing species and exotic plants
such as guava, citrus, lantana, quinine, elephant grass and blackberry
which invade the territory of native species on abandoned farms. Over
the past decade alone it is estimated that 100-150 species of plants have
been introduced onto the islands (McFarland & Cifuentes,1996). Agriculture
is the main form of income for 8-10% of the population. The highest biodiversity
found on the islands is contained in the humid middle-higher elevations
of the islands. This is also the best agricultural land, and the natural
habitats have been changed and fragmented over some 60% of the humid middle-higher
elevation habitats. Some of the worst problems have been caused by goats,
pigs, dogs, cats, rats and their parasites. Fernandina is one of the largest
undisturbed islands in the world, currently devoid of introduced vertebrate
species. However, sea cucumber fishermen illegally camping on shore have
increased the risk of introducing rats, ants, other insects and seeds.
Recently goats were re-introduced on Pinta, an island from which the Park
Service and CDRS spent over 20 years removing some 40,000 goats. But pigs
will soon be eradicated and goats numbers diminished on Santiago island
(IUCN,2002).
In 1994, the National Fisheries Development Council, a body which developed
from the commercial industry, lifted the ban on fishing, allowing 'experimental'
fishing of sea cucumbers, lobsters, sharks, groupers and other species,
creating an economic pressure, sustained by political influence, to maximise
short-term profits from fishing (J.Barry, pers.comm.,1994). Large foreign
ships, often with official permits, and supported by mainland fishing
companies and buyers, especially from the port of Manta, increased the
pressure on fishermen both local and mainlanders to harvest the marine
resources unsustainably. These brought in 1995 over 23% of Ecuador's foreign
earnings, much of it from the Oriental market for luxuries and aphrodisiac
foods such as sharks fins and sea cucumbers (Barry,1995; McFarland & Cifuentes,1996):
the harvesting of sea cucumbers had been encouraged by a Taiwanese business
delegation in 1990. Conservation is seen as the enemy of this trade.
The popularity of the islands with tourists is increasing beyond the power
of the existing Park facilities to accommodate it, and the Park is under
pressure from tour operators and the increasing numbers of large commercial
vessels owned by outsiders, whose permits to visit the islands are issued
by the merchant marine, not by the Park authorities. This replacement
of locals by wealthy outsider companies is depriving islanders of their
power of influencing decisions about the islands. There is now very little
guiding by Park staff. The zoning system that used to protect the islands
from tourism is outdated and does not cater for the new types of tourism
which are developing such as jet skiing, diving, sport fishing and helicopter
tours (McFarland & Cifuentes, 1996). Other problems include fire risks,
litter and waste disposal, difficult in the thin soil. There has been
a decline in agricultural holdings as the economic dependence on tourism
grows, and unplanned urban growth has occurred around the tourist bases.
Demands for infrastructural services has outstripped capacity, and dissatisfaction
amongst residents is growing (McFarland & Cifuentes, 1996). Inadequate
services, pollution, crime and environmental degradation have followed
the unplanned growth of the past two decades. If government control is
not imposed the unique resources of the National Park may be irremediably
degraded by exploitation for short-term profit.
The Park's own legal basis for maintenance and control of the marine sites
is weak (McFarland & Cifuentes, 1996). Marine biodiversity has been particularly
threatened by the uncontrolled illegal fishing by large ships owned by
mainland or Asiatic fishing companies in pelagic zones, often inside the
Marine Reserve, using high technology methods such as long-lining. These
encourage the local fishermen to exploit the resources for the international
market (McFarland & Cifuentes,1996). Lifting the ban on fishing led to
large-scale exploitation; the sea cucumber limit was exceeded 20 days
into the fishing season. Fishermen illegally collected other commercially
valuable species such as sea horses, snails, sea urchins and black coral.
In response to this situation, the Sub-secretary of Fisheries officially
ended the 'experimental' fishing season in mid-December 1994. In response,
in early 1995, sea-cucumber fishermen (peperinos) took over the Park buildings
and Research Station and threatened to sabotage conservation services,
harm staff and critically endangered species, and to interrupt tourism
services unless the fisheries were reopened (McFarland & Cifuentes, 1996).
Further unrest occurred in 1995 after the Ecuadorian President vetoed
a law passed by the Ecuadorian National Congress which would have politicised
the Park Service, giving management authority over the National Park to
local politicians and special interest groups. This was followed by a
second series of hostage takings guided by two elected officials and a
small group of island residents. The Mayor of the capital threatened to
take tourists hostage and set the Park on fire. Government property was
damaged and stolen, municipal property was taken over, the CDRS was blocked
and the staff prevented from working. Equipment and supplies belonging
to illegal fishermen which had been confiscated by the Park Service were
returned to the fishermen on orders from higher authorities. No significant
penalties for illegal harvesting of marine resources or destruction of
the terrestrial habitat were levied. Most of the native residents of the
islands did not support this agitation.
In March, 1997 a park warden was shot and seriously wounded by illegal
fishermen whilst trying to inspect an illegal fishing camp and sea-cucumber
processing plant on the west coast of Isabela Island (E. Cruz, in litt.,1997).
These illegal campers cut down mangroves for use as fuelwood, which are
the habitat of the rarest species of Darwin finch. The area of densest
sea cucumber populations has already been heavily impacted, thus decreasing
its economic attraction. Many sharks, rays and marine mammals are caught
as by-catch of driftnet and longline fishing. There are fears that this
type of unsustainable 'gold-rush' fishing will exacerbate social problems
when the source of income dries up for the 800 fishermen attracted to
the island by these opportunities. The Management Plan for the Galápagos
Marine Reserve (GMRR) was approved in 1998 but not implemented for several
years. In 1999 the government again issued permits for sea cucumber and
shark fishing, and again, in November 2000, the National Park Service
buildings and the Charles Darwin Research Station were sacked by fishermen
agitating for an increased fishing season and quotas. In 2001, a leading
conservationist was jailed but the illegal fishermen he was restraining
were released from custody.
In January 2001 oil spilled from the tanker Jessica, which ran aground
offshore from the capital, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno on San Cristobal Island.
Despite attempts by the Ecuadorian Navy, the United States Coast Guard
and other agencies, within three weeks, most of the 900,000 litres of
oil escaped and dispersed, killing some 10-25,000 marine iguanas on Santa
Fé though elsewhere the contamination was widespread but light. Environmental
organisations were quick to point out the involvement from the start in
mitigating the disaster by local fishermen, the tourism sector and the
local population. Mitigation included collecting the fuel on the water;
rescuing wildlife like boobies, pelicans and sea lions, which were evacuated
to the coast, and the building of corrals to keep the animals in during
the emergency (World Heritage News, 2001). And in October 2002, US$10
million compensation was awarded to the National Park against the insurers.
Meanwhile however, in 2000, 12 sea-lions and in June 2001, 35 more were
destroyed for parts considered aphrodisiac in the Far East. In sum, without
sufficient staff, programs and funding the GNP, GMRR and CDF which have
preserved the integrity of these unique islands so far, will not be able
to effectively control the problems brought by the unplanned growth of
the population, tourism, overfishing and lack of governmental authority.
STAFF This comprises one director, one sub-director,
one technical coordinator, various chiefs (one in each inhabited island),
two accountants, protection officers (one per technical office), 41 rangers,
and four assistant secretaries (INEFAN, pers.comm.,1995). Approximately
25 people are dedicated to the GMR (Carrasco, 2000).
BUDGET In 1994, the budget was US$860,000. The
expected budget for 1995 was US$905,000 (INEFAN, pers. comm., 1995). In
1998 the WHB granted US$92,500 for training and technical cooperation
(UNESCO,1999). The National Park receives 40% of all the revenues paid
by the visitors to the islands; the GMR receives 5%; a further 5% is given
to the Ecuadorian Naval Army. These three items totalled US$3.6 million
in 1999 (Carrasco, 2000). The Galápagos National Park receives an additional
income from the tourism operating permits, as well as funds from the national
budget. In 2003 JICA (Japan) launched a 5-year plan to fund education,
conservation and development projects.
LOCAL ADDRESSES
The Ecuadorian Minister of the Environment,
Ave.Eloy Alfaro y Amazonas,
Ed.Ministerio de Agricultura 7mo. Piso,
Quito,
Ecuador.
Tel: +593 2 563423/563429/563420.
Fax: +593 2 565809.
E-mail: rrendon@pi.pro.ec
mma@ambiente.gov.ec
The Director,
Galápagos National Park & Marine Reserve,
Puerto Ayora,
Isla Santa Cruz,
Galápagos,
Ecuador.
Tel: +593 5 526189/52651.
E-mail: dirpng@fcdarwin.org.ec spng@fcdarwin.org.ec
Charles Darwin Research Station,
Puerto Ayora, Galápagos
Tel: +593 5 526146/7
Fax: +593 4 564636,
http://fcdarwin.org.ec
Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galapagos Islands
Av. 6 de diciembre 4757 Pasaje California
Apartado Postal 17-01-3891, Quito
Fax: +593 2 443935
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DATE June 1981. Updated 8/1986, 4 & 9/1989,
5/1990,10/1994, 7 & 10/1995, 7/1997, 2/2001, March 2003.
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