Buffon's Macaw in Ecuador

Reprinted from the Proceedings of the International Aviculturists Society, January 11 - 15, 1995

An October, 1994, field investigation of the situation of Buffon's macaw Ara ambigua in western Ecuador reveals it to be in a precarious state. Large scale clearance of the lowland wet and dry forests where it occurs in very small numbers continues to be rapid. The opening-up of these forests permits an increase in other detrimental activities, notably direct hunting of the species, robbing of young birds from nests for illegal trade and increased disturbance of areas where nesting attempts are made. Recommendations for conservation action are based on the existence of these pressures, the lack of basic ecological information about the species, and the fact that a distinct subspecies, guayaquilensis, is claimed to exist in south-west Ecuador and nowhere else within the geographical range. Action for A. ambigua conservation in Esmeraldas State in the north- west is a following priority, and is probably best undertaken in cooperation with existing natural resource use projects and protected areas in the region.

The Great green or Buffon's macaw Ara ambigua has an apparently discontinuous distribution, from eastern Honduras to western Colombia, appearing again in western Ecuador. According to Forshaw (1989) and Meyer de Schauensee (1966) the nominate subspecies occurs north of this distributional gap and the subspecies guayaquilensis occurs in Ecuador. However, the distinction between subspecies is the subject of debate and Fjeldsa et al (1987) have suggested that guayaquilensis is not a valid race, and furthermore that Ara ambigua and A. militaris might be conspecific, although they acknowledge the need to gather more data.

More recently Toral (1992) has suggested that it is the nominate race of A. ambigua which occurs in north-western Ecuador (in the humid extension of the Chocó region) and that guayaquilensis only occurs south of where the coastal hill range commences, coupled with the beginning of an increasingly more arid climatic regime in south-west Ecuador. On bill size alone, H. Schlenker (pers. comm.) insists that guayaquilensis is a valid race. However, all contributors are agreed that what is currently called A. ambigua occurs entirely in the lowlands while A. militaris is primarily montane. This article refers to Buffon's macaw in south-west Ecuador as guayaquilensis and in north-west Ecuador only as A. ambigua.

Irrespective of taxonomic status, this large green macaw of the lowlands is under the onslaught of human pressures (although Collar et al, 1992 do not list A. ambigua, but would surely welcome comments on probable current status). Large scale clearance of lowland wet and dry forests appears to be accelerating, this being especially noticeable in Ecuador. With the opening-up of the forests comes the wave of other detrimental activities, notably direct hunting of the species, robbing of young birds from nests for illegal trade and increased disturbance of areas where nesting attempts are made. Legal protection in various countries of its geographical range appears either too weak or insufficiently enforced, prompting non-governmental organisations to review what more can be done to conserve A. ambigua, working amongst themselves and in concert with relevant government authorities. A relatively recent proposal has come from the RARE Center for Bird Conservation (RARE) to review the status and threats to A. ambigua throughout its entire geographical range and to promote better conservation action, although this has yet to be implemented.

In keeping with its policy to prioritize resources on the world's most endangered parrots, and certainly those on CITES Appendix 1, the World Parrot Trust (WPT) expressed an interest to provide support for improved conservation action for A. ambigua, and decided that its best option initially would be to concentrate effort and resources on action for the species in Ecuador. In this choice, the factors to consider were: a) that a distinct subspecies, guayaquilensis, is claimed to exist in Ecuador and nowhere else within the geographical range, b) that the forests of western Ecuador are being cleared at a rapid rate (e.g. Dodson and Gentry, 1991; Parker and Carr, 1992), c) that infrastructure for action might be better developed in Ecuador, a country which has received a lot of conservation attention internationally in recent years.

Given that some start-up funds were available, the one obstacle to immediately initiating a conservation programme was the lack of detailed information about current status, threats, existing conservation action focused on A. ambigua, the players involved and which area, south-west or north-west, should take priority. Thus the WPT decision was to send the author of this article to investigate the situation at first-hand, and to provide recommendations plus background information for the most appropriate support programme to be formulated and implemented.

As a party to CITES, Ecuador gives protection to any A. ambigua that are found being exported from the country, but the obligation does not extend to confiscation of birds which are not in transit across the international boundary.

The Ley Forestal de Ecuador (Forestry Law of Ecuador) provides penalties for illegal hunting and keeping in captivity of protected species, but it is not specific enough about the circumstances under which confiscation can take place. The enforcement of this law solely by the presiding authorities has been weak, and recent confiscations (in the Guayaquil area) have proven difficult to complete with birds held on private land where there is a conflict of interpretation with another law. Fundación Natura, a leading non-governmental organisation (NGO) in Ecuador, has been attempting to confiscate A. ambigua (apparently concentrating on Guayaquil), and officially should do this together with a representative of INEFAN (Instituto Ecuatoriano Forestal y Areas naturales - Ecuadorean Institute of Forests and Natural Areas), the government agency responsible for enforcement of the Ley Forestal.

However, Fundación Natura has more recently been trying to make confiscations accompanied by military personnel. There is an INEFAN/Ministry of Defence proposal to start a Guardia Forestal (Forest Guard Service) which will oblige armed forces personnel to complete the last six months of their training in national parks and other government designated protected areas, and which also includes Bosques Protectores (Protected Forests - see below). For now, INEFAN provides badges to guards of some protected areas, including Bosques Protectores, making them Inspectores de Vida Silvestre Honorarios (Honorary Wildlife Inspectors) and thereby giving them more force. There appears to be no legal apparatus linking habitat destruction or nest-site disturbance to actual protection of the species.

The forests of western Ecuador are among the most severely threatened of the world's ecosystems (Myers, 1988; Dodson and Gentry, 1991; Parker and Carr, 1992). There has been an explosion of the human population in Ecuador, from 4 to 10.2 million between 1960 and 1980, and it continues to increase at a rapid rate. More than 90% of Pacific lowland and foothill forest below 900m has been converted to agriculture, especially plantations of bananas, oil-palms, cacao, coffee, soy-beans and rice (Dodson and Gentry, 1991). Dodson and Gentry (1991) estimated the aboriginal forests of western Ecuador at nearly 80,000 sq. km., but now less than 6% remain (tropical wet forest 0.8%, tropical dry forest 1% and tropical moist forest 4%). The coastal forests have been predicted to disappear within the next 20 years.

There is now only one large, relatively uninterrupted area of forest, which is north of the Río Guayllabamba in the provinces of Esmeraldas, Imbabura and Carchi, and includes two forest reserves totalling about 280,000 ha, the Reserva Ecológica Cotacachi-Cayapas (Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve) and the Reserva Etnica y Forestal Awa (Awa Ethnic and Forest Reserve). Otherwise there are now just scattered fragments, e.g. the Río Palenque Science Center (100 ha) and the Jauneche Reserve (138 ha). There are also dry, moist and wet forests "protected" by law in the Machalilla National Park, Manglares-Churute Ecological Reserve, Bosques Protectores Cerro Blanco and Molleturo and Arenillas Military Reserve.

The coastal and foothill forests of western Ecuador have a high biodiversity and endemism. Dodson and Gentry (1991) estimated about 6,300 species of vascular plants in the region of which 20% (about 1,200 spp) may be endemic, i.e. have geographical ranges of <75,000 sq. km. There are more than 800 species of birds in the region, including 40 species and 140 subspecies restricted to the dry forests and scrub habitats of south-west Ecuador and north-west Peru, the so-called Tumbesian centre of endemism. There are 30 species of birds confined to the humid evergreen forests of north-west Ecuador and south-west Colombia, the Chocó centre of endemism. There are about 142 lowland species of mammals in Ecuador, 54 (17% of the total for Ecuador) of which are endemic. Of the 253 species of reptile and amphibian found below 2,000m in western Ecuador, about 60% of the frogs are endemic. In a north-south transect of the coastal part of this region, about 10% of the approximate 160 tree species are endemic in the wet forest at Cabeceres de Bilsa to more than 40% endemic of the 70 species found in the dry forest of the Reserva Militar de Arenillas (Parker and Carr, 1992).

Between 14 and 15% of the national territory of Ecuador lies within officially protected areas and Bosques Protectores. Obviously some of this area is comprised of habitats other than forests, e.g. páramo. INEFAN has jurisdiction over these areas, and the patrimony of the nation's forests in general. As in numerous other countries, the policies and work of INEFAN to maximize protection of forests outside of officially protected areas sit uncomfortably alongside those of a different agency of government, INDA (Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo Agrario - National Institute for Agrarian Development), formerly IERAC (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonización - Ecuadorean Institute of Agrarian Reform and Colonization). In the days of IERAC, the law stated that a colonizer must clear at least 50% of forest on his land, within five years of signing the deeds, to retain possession of it. Apparently the law has been improved (in favour of less obligatory felling of forest), but in practice INDA (which is not fully functional because of so few personnel) has not been able to improve the situation on the ground (F. Coello -pers. comm.).

Any land-owner can make an application to INEFAN to obtain Bosque Protector status for his land (meaning no obligatory forest clearance). Applications are reviewed by INEFAN, INDA and INERHI (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidráulicos - Ecuadorean Institute for Water Resources), and until now most applications have been granted. Like most similar government agencies, INEFAN lacks the resources to effectively police the officially protected areas, and therefore there is now much less forest cover than appears on paper for these areas. the alarming rate of forest cutting in Machalilla National Park is just one example.

Historically the "southern" population of A. ambigua in Ecuador is considered to have inhabited dry and semi-dry to moist (at slightly higher elevations and increasingly further north) forests throughout the coastal cordillera. Now its recent sightings have been confined to Machalilla National Park, the Chongón-Colonche Cordillera (in 1991 - Parker and Carr, 1992, and specifically at Las Balsas in 1993/94 - E. Horstman, pers. comm.) and Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco which forms the end of the Chongón hill range (Parker and Carr, 1992; Toral, 1992; R. Ridgely - pers. comm.). These rare sightings are undoubtedly of very small, relictual populations, and thus it can be stated that the form considered to be A. ambigua guayaquilensis is seriously threatened.

The major threat to guayaquilensis is continuous clearance of forest for small and large- scale agricultural development. This is faster outside of protected areas, but also occurs in reserves that are not effectively policed. Both absolute loss and fragmentation of the forest cause nest-site and food shortages for guayaquilensis and expose active nest-sites to the robbing of chicks. As evidenced by the number of birds in private hands (a minimum of 20 just in the city of Guayaquil - E. Horstman - pers. comm.) there continues to be an illegal internal market. Active nest-sites are also more prone to disturbance from human activities other than outright nest- robbery.

Changes in traditional land-holding patterns are contributing to habitat destruction. Forested land owned and husbanded by local communities has been the tradition nearer the coast in Guayas State, especially on the Santa Elena Peninsula and around Manglaralto, but these lands are being invaded by outsiders (mainly from Manabí State to the north) who do not keep these traditions. In the areas surrounding the Bosque Protector cerro Blanco the traditional land-ownership was of large haciendas, but for a variety of reasons the owners are selling and the large parcels of land are being broken-up into many smaller. There is also the constant process of attrition by invaders/land-squatters on privately-owned land where the owners do not make their presence obvious.

As stated above, the government authorities are under-resourced but appear willing to implement some joint ventures with private and voluntary sectors. Fundación Natura continues to try to confiscate birds as a deterrent to would-be owners and to dampen demand, and this organisation has a reasonable output of educational materials, which could feature guayaquilensis much more. It is not evident that any major sustainable use of forests projects are operational in the region or planned in the near future. Cemento Nacional, the country's largest cement-producing company, has formed Fundación Pro-Pueblo which is working jointly with Fundación Natura (in a project called Proyecto Aspiazu) to map all remaining forests, and to protect forested areas near to Manglaralto (149'S, 8044'W) using the community-owned forest approach.

Located at 20'S, 8044'W, the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco (BPCB) is a private reserve run under the auspices of Fundación Pro-Bosque, another foundation formed by Cemento Nacional which owns the land. It appears to have all the advantages which come with effective wardening that forests elsewhere in the region do not have. The BPCB is situated at the eastern extreme of the Chongón Hills, and Cemento Nacional's primary interest is the exploitation of the limestone deposits that form the southern lip of the end of this hill range. The geological formations are different on the remaining land (to the north) that Cemento Nacional owns and it took the decision some years ago to create the BPCB in this area.

Located only 14 km from Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city, the BPCB is ideally placed to receive visitors, especially school groups, and the Fundación Pro-Bosque has capitalized on this opportunity for conservation education. The BPCB obviously has a primary objective to conserve the dry tropical forest in the area, which incorporates a programme of reforestation with native species. It also has a special focus on the conservation of some of the more endangered species that occur in the reserve, none more so than Buffon's macaw, subspecies guayaquilensis, which the BPCB has adopted as its symbol. Fundación Pro- Bosque also undertakes community relations activities, for example by raising native and ornamental trees and shrubs in its nursery to donate to schools, community groups, etc.

The area has been described (Parker and Carr, 1992) as a moist forest climate over porous limestone, with a related low water table. The result is water-stress which has selected for deciduous high-tolerance plants or deep-rooters. This forest was probably moister originally, but a considerable time ago it was selectively-logged and most of the largest trees were cut. The commonest tree in patches of older forest is the Tillo blanco Brosimum alicastrum, but the front slope is dominated by Ceiba Ceiba trichistandra and the back ridges by Pigío Cavanillesia platanifolia with hardly any overlap. The latter two are large trees with little economic value, but one can find other species of substantial commercial interest such as Guayacán Tabebuia chrysantha. There are 143 bird species recorded for the reserve, 37 (28%) of which are Tumbesian endemics. Among the 44 mammal species listed are two large carnivores, the Jaguar Panthera onca and the Puma Felis concolor.

From about 15 to 415m in altitudinal range and originally 2,00 ha in area, the BPCB has recently been extended through the purchase of an adjoining 1,500 ha, and Cemento Nacional/Fundación Pro-Bosque is trying to persuade various neighbouring (mainly to the north) land-owners to sell their land so as to increase the overall reserve size even further. This is also one means to help secure the current northern boundary of the reserve, which is threatened by subsistence farmers who are progressively invading land to the north and clearing forest principally to grow maize. The rate of invasion has been increasing recently because of greater access facilitated by the construction of a good road to the north of the BPCB which services a large water pipeline construction project. Thus, Fundación Pro-Bosque deploys eight forest guards to daily patrol the reserve boundaries, and only with this level of vigilance is the BPCB secure. Additional to the forest guards, the BPCB has staff in charge of organizing visiting groups, a biologist, and part-time guides to lead the visiting groups as well as volunteer guards and a US Peace Corps volunteer.

A typical family which has invaded a patch of land to grow maize makes on average each year about US$600 equivalent, with US$1,000 as a maximum. The difficulty of transporting fresh (as opposed to dried) maize to market effectively limits income. Using this knowledge, Fundación Pro-Bosque has taken a pragmatic approach to dealing with the invader problem. It has begun to recruit campesinos operating at the reserve border to help with the reforestation programme and the maintenance of paths within the reserve. By paying them the equivalent of US$150 per month per person (the average local wage for this type of work is probably nearer to US$50-60 per month), Fundación Pro-Bosque is embarking on a route of demonstrating to the locals that helping to conserve the area is financially worthwhile.

Fundación Pro-Bosque wants to expand on his scheme as quickly as it can, as and when funds are available. For example it wants to develop back-packing routes within the reserve, with local people paid as guides. Furthermore it envisages that some of these people could act as paid assistants in research studies within the reserve. However, there is an awareness of the need to be cautious, given that Fundación Pro-Bosque cannot bank-roll all land-squatters in the area. Additionally, there is concern that payments to some families inevitably will cause envy in others, but the balancing view is that this can be a strong means by which to spread the realization of the value of protecting the forests of the area, i.e. it will have an educational dimension. The BPCB is viewed as a testing ground for this type of approach to the conservation of dry tropical forest in south-western Ecuador.

From spasmodic sightings in recent years it was known that guayaquilensis still survived in the BPCB. In 1993 sightings were more frequent and it was suspected that at least one pair had attempted to nest. In 1994 one of the forest guards found a pair using a nest-cavity (in the trunk of a large broken-off Pigío tree) barely inside the reserve border. Immediately a field look-out and guard camp was established to provide round-the-clock protection of the nest-site. This paid-off and two young fledged on 1 October. The birds have been seen occasionally in the area since, as a family unit and sometimes the young birds alone. A post-fledging inspection of the nest-tree revealed human tracks leading to it (would-be nest-robbers?) and the 24 hour camp is still running as a message that there is a continuous presence there. This is no casual undertaking and the director is soon to issue his guards with hand-guns after they have received a course in weapons training.

From the limited observations of the macaws to date it appears that they are more likely to nest in the lower northern zone of the reserve where Pigío trees predominate, moving up to the higher central zone every day to feed. Virtually nothing is known about their feeding preferences in this dry tropical forest, although a family of campesinos which is cooperating with the BPCB said that they eat the fruits/seeds of the following trees: Pigío, Totumbo Cordia eriostigma, Cocobolo Cynometra sp., Matapalo Ficus trigunata, Higuerón Ficus sp., Guayaba de monte Psidium acutangulum, Caimito Chrysophyllum caimito, Tillo blanco and Pechiche Vitex gigantea among others. Fundación Pro-Bosque has known that another active nest-site existed outside the reserve boundary, near to the land which this family works, but the nest-tree recently toppled (after the area was burned). It now transpires that there have been two active nest-trees in this same area (with the implication of two separate pairs) both of which have now fallen. If this is the case there could be nine birds (three pairs, a singleton and two 1994 young) using the BPCB, perhaps more.

As regards captive birds, there is the potential to use them very effectively for education, possibly captive breeding and possibly release into the reserve, but there is also the question of priorities. Fundación Pro-Bosque has the option to set-up a Buffon's macaw captive centre within the BPCB, and the donation of captive guayaquilensis from a rescue centre in Ecuador. It seems appropriate that when other conservation actions are more advanced for wild guayaquilensis in the reserve, the BPCB could have a productive centre for captive macaws.

In regard to the most effective use of funds and other aid for the conservation of guayaquilensis there are two principal factors: identification of the types of field studies and activities which should form a priority, and identification of the field worker(s) best suited to undertake the field work. Expanding on the first of these two points, Buffon's macaw reflects very well the situation of many other psittacines, which is that we have virtually no detail on its ecological requirements and life-cycle to confidently formulate and implement conservation management plans. Limited funds always force choices, and priorities have to be identified in relation to available money and other resources, plus assessment of the relative difficulty of working in different geographical locations.

It does not make sense to do a presence/absence survey, which would probably just duplicate what we already know (see Parker and Carr, 1992; Toral, 1992), use up a lot of man-hours over a very large geographical area, and still leave open the question of effective protection at the sites where presence is confirmed. The Cordillera de Colonche (in addition to field study in the BPCB) could be surveyed to identify any active nest-sites and to then develop incentive schemes (probably partly involving payments) with local farmers to ensure their protection. This proposition has its merits, but obviously the question arises of who will make a long-term commitment to providing these incentives and, more immediately, the extensive Cordillera de Colonche stretches a long way north-west of the BPCB and again would involve many man-hours in searches at higher cost.

Without completely disregarding the above, it seems to make more sense right now to concentrate on an area with guaranteed protection, an existing infrastructure which can greatly assist the collection of valuable field data as quickly as possible, and where time spent in field work is maximized and that of travelling between sites minimized. Thus, within the BPCB there are ecological studies and management activities which can be accorded priority. Identification of other active nest-sites is necessary (followed by vigilance/protection as the responsibility of Fundación Pro-Bosque), as is the scientific monitoring of these nests. This information can be used in several practical ways, one being to more easily locate other suitable nest-sites, construct nest-cavities and/or provide nest-boxes of size and shape preferred by guayaquilensis, and place them in favoured positions. The provision of more nesting cavities is an important issue because no systematic assessment of the availability of natural cavities has been undertaken, and there may be a real shortage, especially given that the largest trees were removed from the area before it received protective status.

The other major matter of concern is to determine the average area over which a pair of macaws ranges, how this varies with season, what proportion of the area and how much time spent in it occurs outside of the BPCB boundaries, what is the variety of food plants and which ones appear to form the staples of the diet, how these vary seasonally, how much time is spent in feeding each day, and if variation in foraging time and area can identify a period of food stress during the year. In terms of information for management, the Fundación Pro-Bosque definitely needs to know if the proportions of different tree species in its reforestation programme reflect what will be able to support a future high density of Buffon's macaw. To gather this information could be exceptionally demanding in time and effort. Although radio-tracking has been successfully used in the genus Amazona, in Costa Rica and Venezuela for example, its successful application in Ara is a matter of debate. To be able to follow radio-tagged macaws would represent immense advantages but, in addition to not knowing how long they would stay on the birds, the other obstacle is how to capture the birds to attach them. Capture of adults without injury could be extremely difficult, but attachment to young birds at the point of fledging from the nest might be possible.

Fortunately the BPCB offers an alternative if radio-tracking is not feasible. By virtue of its hilly terrain, there are high points from which the observer can view large expanses of forest. Fire-control towers are soon to be sited at these points and could be used by researchers and forest guards to plot the areas of use of the forest by the macaws. With sufficiently powerful optics, it should also be possible to identify the tree species that the birds are spending time in, even if it cannot be seen exactly which parts of the tree are being eaten (although it might be possible to check fallen remains in some cases). For a thorough ecological study which intends to define seasonal variations, a period of two years is recommended.

In regard to nest contents manipulation to increase productivity, in the same way that Dr Charles Munn (of the Wildlife Conservation Society) and his team have been doing with other macaw species in Manu National Park, Peru, the basic data on clutch size and brood size need to be collected first. Although two guayaquilensis chicks fledged from one nest in 1994, the clutch size was unknown, as were the general environmental conditions, especially food supply. It may have been a good year, and perhaps in normal years only one young is produced: this needs to be determined. If the removal of "surplus" chicks from nests turns out to be an option (and one objective is to boost the population in the BPCB as quickly as possible), it will necessitate time and resources for the care, rearing and release of these young. This might be best done in parallel with the development of the centre for captive guayaquilensis.

There appear to be three other areas of conservation activity that could merit support: a) the continuing integration of neighbouring campesinos into the guarding of macaws and the reserve in general by offering inducements, at least in the short-term, b) the Fundación Pro-Bosque education programme focused around guayaquilensis and, c) the centre for captive guayaquilensis.

As regards qualified field workers to undertake this conservation work, it would obviously be an advantage for them to know very well the BPCB. In line with its policy statement on research in the BPCB, the Fundación Pro-Bosque cannot directly finance research studies but will provide the infrastructure for these to be more effective. It therefore can provide housing and other facilities, the use of forest guards and help in transportation to study sites where this does not conflict with other programmed activities. In return, any researcher must, in the course of his field work, pass on knowledge of techniques, etc, to the forest guards who are assisting in any way.

According to Forshaw (1989), Buffon's macaw was probably never very widespread or numerous in western Ecuador, and R. Ridgely, (pers. comm.) has commented that lowland Esmeraldas State appears to be exceptionally wet for this species, which could limit the population naturally through the availability of appropriate food types. Ridgely (pers. comm.) also considers that the preferred altitudinal range of Buffon's macaw in Esmeraldas is between 200 and 700m, although it is bound to occur either side of this, e.g. three birds at Alto Tambo (800m) in December 1981 (Forshaw, 1989). Within the altitudinal range stated above occur some of the most precipitous slopes, more so within the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve (CCER), which could slow down the rate of attrition of the forests used regularly by the species. Ridgely (pers. comm.) estimated this population of A. ambigua at no more than 100, while Toral (992) estimated 50-100 (his ranking of uncommon) from his survey. Reported sightings have been sporadic: at El Placer (0 51'N, 78 34'W), 6-10 birds in July 1992 by Niels Krabbe and again by Bret Whitney (C. Munn, pers. comm.), and a freshly killed bird at the same place in 1983 (Fjeldsa et al, 1987).

Despite some precipitous slopes within its preferred altitudinal range, it would appear that Buffon's macaw is under pressure in the region because of the premium timber that these forests hold. Logging companies are active and there is probably no serious reforestation taking place (R. Phillips, pers. comm.).

The long-time existence of the Ibarra-San Lorenzo railway line, until now the only Andes-Coast connection in the north, has resulted in widespread forest clearance either side of it, and the construction of a new road as another Andes-Coast link is inevitably being followed by settlement and a new wave of forest clearance. Rapid felling of preferred timber trees is occurring in the region, although it is not known if they are also the most favoured by A. ambigua for food and nesting sites. Further to the clearance and fragmentation of forest is the increase in hunting pressure: hunting for food is indiscriminate and widespread and macaws are considered fair game. The CCER is said by some not to be well protected, with the perennial problem of too few, poorly paid guards (R. Phillips, pers. comm.).

Outside of any protected areas it would appear that no conservation measures operate for A. ambigua, and it is extremely unlikely that hunting or live capture are ever challenged. Of the two protected areas, the CCER covers 204,000 ha within the altitudinal range 100-4,500m. It was created in 1968 and its definite boundaries were established in 1979. Within this reserve the SUBIR (Sustainable Use of Biological Resources) Project is taking place. This multi-year, USAID funded project has CARE-International as the major NGO directing its operations within the CCER. No specific conservation work has taken place with A. ambigua in the CCER (J. Stallings, Director of SUBIR in CCER - pers. comm.) but the species is listed as occurring there.

The other protected area of the region is the Awa Ethnic and Forest Reserve which straddles the Ecuador-Colombia border and protects the land and resources for traditional use by the native Awa people. This community thus has a much stronger incentive to protect what is within the reserve boundaries. Two Ecuadoreans have recently completed a feasibility study of a 26,400 ha corridor between the CCER and the Awa Reserve (Ortiz and Quishpe, 1993). In practice this could be very difficult to establish and maintain, given that the new road will run right through it, and that the land is already (or in the process) parcelled out into lots. Ortiz and Quishpe (1993) also reported A. ambigua as uncommon in their study area (small numbers every 1-6 days, plus reports from local people).

A non-protected area site (0 59'N, 78 34'W) investigated in late October 1994 is by the Río San José in the Parish of Santa Rita in the Canton of San Lorenzo. It is at about 200m altitude in the wet to very wet tropical forest zone. According to the prevailing climatic regime, A. ambigua occurs in this region in an area of overlap between wet tropical forest (0-600m altitude; 2,000-4,000mm annual rainfall), very wet tropical forest (400-600m alt.; 4,000-6,000mm ann. rf.) and very wet subtropical forest (500-1,600m alt.). Because it is so near to the CCER its geological formations are also principally volcanic, and mean annual temperature and humidity in excess of the 25.7C and 86.5% recorded for the CCER.

At this site of very wet tropical forest the trees of principal commercial interest are the following: top stratum: Chanul Humiriastrum procerum, Sande Brosimum utile, Chalviande Virola sp.; second stratum: Amarillo Persea rigens, Guión Pseudolmedia aggersii, Jígua Ocotea sp., Paco Grias tessmannii, Guasca; third stratum: Punta de lanza Tettrathylacium macrophyllum, Sandillo, Pichango, Tambora. In nearby wet tropical forest the composition is similar, with the addition of Cuángare Dialyanthera sp. in the top stratum, Mascarey and Damagua Poulsnia armata in the second stratum, and a different set in the third stratum: Sajo Camproperma panamensis, Sabaleta Clarsia biflora, Zapotillo Matisis sp., Guabo Inga sp., Piedrita, Pialde, Cacaotillo (FIPAD, 1993). On virtually all lots of land at this site there was frenetic felling of the above commercially valuable species.

A survey of local people about the occurrence of A, ambigua consisted of showing them an illustration of the bird and asking if they had seen it. Approximately half said that they had not, and half said that it occurred at another time of year. Some were more specific and said that this was from March when there were fruits/seeds of the Aray tree. This is apparently a valuable timber tree although this local name does not appear on any floral list. On a large-scale map (IGM/INE, 1973) there is a place-name 'Pitalo Dos Aray', or the name might be a corruption of Mascarey.

This region of Esmeraldas State presents a very different situation than that found in south-west Ecuador. The extent of the terrain, the different climatic regime and more complex forest, the lack of infrastructure, the lack of clearly defined viewing points, the more overt and rapid clearance of forest outside of reserves and the need to deal with local people in a different way all conspire to make any detailed ecological studies and conservation management much more challenging, and almost certainly more costly. The uncertainty of the status of A. ambigua outside and inside of the CCER brings us virtually to a presence/absence survey to begin with.

The SUBIR Project can offer the use of either of the two field bases that they have at the edge of the CCER, one at the head of the Río Cayapas (50m alt.) and the other at the head of the Río Santiago (60m alt.) - access to the CCER is only by river - plus logistical support where possible (J. Stallings, pers. comm.). Using the CCER, the SUBIR Project has started two ecotourism ventures with local people, and A. ambigua conservation could perhaps fit in with these.

Based on the above information it is recommended that funds and other resources are first directed to ecological studies and conservation management actions for guayaquilensis in south-west Ecuador, specifically starting with the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco and its immediate surroundings. Potential supporters should consider the funding of ecological studies, campesino incentives, educational programmes and the centre for captive macaws within the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco in that order of priority. A survey of the Cordillera de Colonche for additional nest-sites should be the next priority if sufficient funds become available. Concerning help for A. ambigua conservation in Esmeraldas State as a following priority, liaison with the SUBIR Project is suggested as a potentially effective way to conduct appropriate conservation work for the species in that region.

This investigation was financially supported by the International Aviculturists Society and the World Parrot Trust. The author thanks the staff of the BPCB, Rocio Alarcón, Enrique de la Cadena, Flavio Coello, Roberto Phillips, Dr Herbert Schlenker and Dr Jody stallings for information and help in Ecuador. Thanks are also due to Dr Charles Munn and Dr Robert Ridgely for useful information.

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