SOURCES
I have made every effort to check the meaning of a dinosaur name against the original description or other first-hand material. Additional sources include such works as O. C. Marsh's official lists of genera (1880 and 1890), and popular books and articles written by major vertebrate paleontologists such as Richard Owen, Barnum Brown, and Henry Osborn. I also have consulted 19th century editions of Greek and Latin lexicons and grammar books, which sometimes provide different meanings for classical words from those listed in more modern editions. When the author of a name provided an etymology, a meaning, or an explanation, I have used that direct source--a name should mean what its author wanted it to mean. Otherwise, proposed etymologies and meanings are my own, based on personal research, and may or may not match the derivations currently found in various popular and technical works on the topic of dinosaurs. I have also consulted lexicons, gazetteers, encyclopedias and dictionaries in determining a preferred pronunciation for dinosaur names.
FORM OF ENTRIES
The entries in the Dinosaur Name Lexicon and Pronunciation Guide are set out according to the following form:
1. Italics
Valid generic names are in bold italics: Stegosaurus.
Synonyms, preoccupied names or doubtful generic names (nomina dubia) are in light face italics: Brontosaurus [= Apatosaurus].
Words from foreign languages are in light face italics. Long vowels and diphthongs (used in determining the accent) in Greek and Latin words are indicated in bold face: Gr. notos "back"; Gr. deinos "terrible"
2. Author and Date
The author and date for a name are indicated: Allosaurus Marsh 1877.
3. Meaning of Name
An interpreted meaning for a generic name is given in quotes, with understood anatomical or geographical terms given in parentheses: Allosaurus Marsh 1877 "strange (vertebra) lizard"; Shantungosaurus Hu 1973 "Shandong Province (China) lizard."
4. Asterisk
An asterisk * indicates that the meaning or etymology is taken directly from the original author.
5. Pronunciation
A proposed pronunciation is given in the phonetic transcription described below. The stress in a name is indicated by use of upper case letters, the main stress being bold face: Stegosaurus STEG-o-SAWR-us. In some cases, an alternative pronunciation is given. The abbreviation "c.u." means "common usage," to indicate a pronunciation in wide usage; "t.L.m." means "traditional Latin method," to indicate a pronunciation based on a strict application of Latin rules for placing accents or determining vowel length: Saurornithoides saw-ROR-ni-THOI-deez (t.L.m.: SAWR-or-NITH-o-IE-deez).
6. Etymologies
The basic word elements used to compose a name are given in parentheses, with definitions: Tyrannosaurus (Gr. tyrannos "tyrant" + Gr. sauros "lizard").
Greek word elements are given in transliterated form, which may be latinized with a different spelling in the scientific name itself. See below.
Languages are indicated by the following abbreviations:
Gr. = Greek
Lat. = Latin
Chin. = Chinese
Span. = Spanish
Mong. = Mongolian
Eng. = English
In many cases the etymologies give the combining stem with a hyphen for the Greek or Latin word used in a name, with the way the word is usually listed in lexicons indicated in parentheses: Megalosaurus (Gr. megal- (megas) "great, large" + ...).
In some cases, the genitive case is listed first, if it was used to form the name instead of the standard combining stem: Plateosaurus (Gr. plateos (platys) "broad, flat; large, strong" + ...).
The word "for" indicates that the author of a name used an alternate or special latinization for a word: Elosaurus "marsh lizard" (for Gr. helos "marsh"...)
The word "from" indicates that the author formed the name by using an arbitrary stem or spelling, not derived according to strict rules of grammar: Torosaurus "perforated (frill) lizard" (from Gr. toreo "pierce, perforate"...)
Connecting vowels such as "o" and "i" are not indicated.
Special or applied meanings commonly given certain words are indicated in brackets: Gr. kompsos "elegant [adorned, delicate]"
7. Gender
The grammatical gender of a name is indicated as (m) "masculine," (f) "feminine" or (n) "neuter."
8. Reason for Name
The reason for a name is briefly described, using quotes from the original author whenever possible. The terms "probably" and "possibly" are used to indicate cases in which the reason for a name is not explicitly stated or is otherwise not obvious from the original article, context or other sources. When an author (Marsh, for example) explains the reason for a particular name, the formula used is "Marsh explains: "; if the author's text seems to provide a clear reason for the name, but the author does not explicitly state that it is the reason for the name, the formula used is "Marsh says: ".
Special nomenclatural or taxonomic problems are discussed for a number of names such as Centrosaurus and Coelophysis.
9. Classification
A basic classification lists the suborder and family in most cases. Question marks are sometimes used to indicate classifications that remain controversial or unclear.
10. Geological Period
The general geological period in which a dinosaur lived is indicated with short abbreviations:
E. = Early
M. = Middle
L. = Late
Trias. = Triassic
Jura. = Jurassic
Cret. = Cretaceous
11. Geographical Range
The known geographical range of a dinosaur is indicated with abbrevations explained below:
C = central
N = north
S = south
E = east
W = west
Eur. = Europe
As. = Asia
Chin. = China
Mong. = Mongolia
Afr. = Africa
Aus. = Australia
Ant. = Antarctica
A. = America
Mex. = Mexico
Madag. = Madagascar
12. Synonyms
Synonyms or replacement names are indicated in brackets with an equal sign at the end of the entry: [= Camptosaurus].
13. Nomina Dubia
Doubtful names (See below) are indicated by the term "nomen dubium" in brackets at the end of the entry: [nomen dubium]
14. Dino-birds
A number of taxa such as Archaeopteryx are sometimes classified as primitive birds, sometimes as dinosaurs, and are indicated by "[dino-bird]" at the end of the entry.
15. Higher Category Names
Three kinds of higher category names are indicated in brackets at the end of the entry: [taxon], [clade] and [obsolete name].
I. FORMING DINOSAUR NAMES
The formal scientific names for dinosaurs are considered New Latin words. New Latin (also called Neo-Latin, scientific Latin, etc.) is a modern form of ancient Latin, retaining some basic features of the grammar, simplifying others, and expanding the alphabet with new letters such as "j" and "w." New Latin draws very heavily on ancient Greek for word elements used in composing scientific names, just as ancient Latin borrowed from Greek, often latinizing Greek words with Latin spellings and Latin grammatical endings. For convenience, the term "Latin" as used here should be understood as New Latin, containing ancient Latin and latinized Greek words. In most cases, words borrowed from Greek are respelled to fit the Latin alphabet and standard Latin pronunciations, and often are given Latin endings: Greek koilos "hollow" becomes coelus in Latin. The basic rules for latinizing transliterated Greek are indicated below. (Hyphens indicate a word ending.)
GREEK | LATIN |
---|---|
ai | ae or e (long "e") |
ei | i (long "i") |
-e (long "e") | -a |
gg, gk, gkh, gx | ng, nc, nch, nx |
k | c |
kh | ch |
oi | oe or e (long "e") |
-on (short "o") | -um |
-on (long "o") | -on or -o (long "o") |
-os (short "o") | -us |
-os (long "o") | -os |
ou | u (long "u") |
Generic names are most often formed by combining word elements from Greek and Latin with each other, or sometimes with words borrowed from modern languages such as Chinese, Mongolian, Spanish, English, etc. Such combinations often drop endings, use contractions, add connecting vowels, or resort to other methods to make names more euphonious.
Greek and Latin words often have a stem form that is preferred in forming combinations. Thus the name Megalosaurus is formed by using megal-, the grammatical stem of Greek megas "great," with a connecting "o" and Greek sauros, latinized as saurus.
Word Elements
A number of commonly used word elements have special meanings or uses in vertebrate paleontology. The Greek terms anchi- and plesio- are often used to mean "near" in the sense of linking other forms: Anchiceratops; Greek para- is often used to mean "near" in the sense of resemblance or close affinity to a particular form: Pararhabdodon. The prefix pro- means "before," most often to indicate a presumed ancestral relationship to some particular form: Prosaurolophus; the prefix proto- means "first" (sometimes "forward"), usually to indicate a more general ancestor or precursor status: Protoceratops. Greek eu means "good, true, well," and was sometimes used in Greek as an intensifier in the sense of "strong" or "prominent"; eu- is often used arbitrarily in zoological names to create replacement names: Euhelopus for preoccupied Helopus. The suffix -oides means "like" or "having the form of": Dryptosauroides. The suffix -iscus can mean "little" (the classical meaning) or, sometimes less correctly in vertebrate paleontology, "imitator" (as if derived from Greek isko "imitate"); -iscus is often used arbitrarily to form new names: Pachysauriscus, Cetiosauriscus. The Greek suffix -ias is used with Greek nouns and adjectives in animal names to indicate some special characteristic, and might be interpreted as "in character" or "characterized by": Amphicoelias, Epanterias. The Latin suffixes -ia and -ius are commonly used to create commemorative names: Galtonia, Tanius. I have translated the Greek words sauros (masculine) and saura (feminine) as "lizard" in preference to "reptile," except when the author of a name indicated a different meaning such as "saurian" or "dinosaur." Cope's usage of the Greek word orophe "roof, main beam of a house" in dinosaur names to refer to dorsal vertebrae (Hypsirophus, Brachyrophus, Symphyrophus), or Greek ganos "luster" for tooth enamel (Dysganus), is an idosyncratic touch.
II. PRONOUNCING DINOSAUR NAMES
Is there a "correct" way to pronounce dinosaur names in English? The simple answer would appear to be "no." Anyone reviewing the many dinosaur encyclopedias, dictionaries, guides and data books published in the past few years that provide pronunciations will find many inconsistencies and a few glaring oddities.
Logically, there should be an "ideal" way to pronounce dinosaur names in English: (1) by strictly following the by-the-book classical rules for pronouncing words and names formed from Greek and Latin word roots in New Latin, and (2) by carefully approximating the original pronunciation of words and names taken from modern languages such as Chinese, Mongolian, Spanish, etc. In the real world, however, such an "ideal" pronunciation quickly proves impractical. Dinosaur names derived from Greek and Latin roots are not always formed according to the strict rules of classical grammar. Morevoer, common usage has often modified Greek and Latin word elements used in scientific names in arbitrary ways. Usage has also produced many "sounded-out" readings of names derived from modern language such as Chinese, because of different, and often contradictory, systems for transcribing non-English words with Latin letters.
Faced with this muddle, I believe it is still possible to offer a "preferred" way of pronouncing dinosaur names. A "preferred" pronunciation would be a balance between an "ideal" pronunciation with an "actual usage" pronunciation. Unavoidably, the "preferred" pronunciations proposed here are personal judgments--alternate pronunciations might be justified in many cases for perfectly sound reasons.
PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
The phonetic transcriptions in brackets are based on common spellings used in English, NOT on the official phonetic transcriptions used in technical sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary. The phonetic transcriptions also reflect typical American pronunciations. For example, some speakers may not distinguish between short [o] and broad [ah]. Most consonants are the same is in ordinary English usage and are not listed. So-called "short" and "long" vowels are indicated in parentheses.
[a] as in "bat" (short a)
[ah] as in "father" (broad a)
[ahr] as in "car"
[ar] as in "barometric"
[aw] as in "law"
[awr] as in "or"
[ay] as in "bay" (long a)
[ch] as in "chew," "chat"
[dh] as in "the," "though" (not use in pronouncing Latin names)
[e] as in "bet," "bell" (short e)
[ee] as in "beet" (long e)
[eer] as in "beer" (usually not distinguished from [ihr])
[er] as in "merry," "terrible"
[g] always hard as in "get," "give"
[i] as in "it," "bill" (short i)
[ie] as in "tie," "sky," "aisle" (long i)
[ihr] as in "irritate"
[j] as in "jump," "jet"
[ng] as in "sing"
[ngg] as in "finger"
[o] as in "tot" (short o)
[oh] as in "toe," "boat" (long o)
[oi] as in "boy"
[oo] as in "too," "tool" (long u)
[or] as in "tornado," "forest"
[ow] as in "cow"
[s] as in "sit"
[sh] as in "shoe," "ash"
[th] hard as in "think," "path"
[u] as in "put," "book," "full"
[uh] as in "cut," "rough" (short u)
[uhr] as in "fur," "bird"
[y] as in "yet" (NOT [ie] as in "my" or [ee] as in "funny")
[z] as in "zeal"
[zh] as in "pleasure,"
The "uh" Sound English also has a neutral vowel sound found in unaccented syllables, the so-called schwa, often symbolized by an upside down "e". This sound occurs in the final "a" in "ultra," and is phonetically distinct from the stressed initial "uh" sound (treated here as a short "u") at the beginning of "ultra," a sound peculiar to English, found in "cut," "blood," "rough," etc. However, the phonetic transcription [uh] used here does not distinguish between the unstressed "uh" (the schwa) and the distinct vowel sound "uh" (the short "u") which closely resembles it.
Although English speakers may use the neutral schwa sound for the unaccented vowels a, e, i, o, and u in dinosaur names, such vowels can also be pronounced distinctly, as they were in Greek and Latin: the connecting "o" in Camptosaurus can be either KAMP-toh-SAWR-us or KAMP-tuh-SAWR-us. In the phonetic transcriptions used here, Greek and Latin vowels are not changed to [uh] when they are unaccented. However, the short "u" in Latin is usually pronounced [uh] when stressed like the short "u" in English "cut," etc. The endings -a and -us should be pronounced with the unstressed [uh] (schwa) sound, however.
PRONOUNCING GREEK AND LATIN
The pronunciations indicated in this lexicon are based on the so-called Traditional English Method for pronouncing Latin and latinized Greek.
(1) The Traditional English Method applies the basic conventions of English spelling to Latin spelling, treating Latin and latinized Greek words as if they were English. Consonants are usually pronounced as in English, but vowels may have special features, in particular, the "short" and "long" vowels in Greek and Latin are matched with the so-called "short" and "long" vowels in English as indicated above. The basic pronunciation rules are:
a short [a], long [ay], sometimes [ah] or [e] before "r"; final -a as unstressed [uh]
ae [ee] (pronounced as [ay] by some speakers)
ai [ie] or [ay] (Greek diphthong usually latinized as "ae" [ee].)
ar [ar], [ahr], [ayr] or [er]
au [aw]
c like [s] before ae, e, i, oe, y; like [k] elsewhere
cc like [ks] before ae, e, i, oe, y; like [k] elsewhere
ch like [k] (sometimes like [ch], but [k] preferred in zoological names).
e short [e], long [ee]
ei [ie] (sometimes [ee])
er [er] preferred to [uhr]; sometimes [eer] or [ihr] when stressed
eu [yoo] or [oo] (The Greek ending -eus [yoos] is commonly pronounced in two syllables as [ee-uhs] in zoological names, changing the stress accent, thus Deltadromeus is pronounced DEL-ta-DROHM-ee-us rather than "del-TAD-rom-yoos.")
g like [j] before ae, e, i, oe, y, like [g] elsewhere NOTE: The Greek combinations gg, gk, gkh, gx, are normally latinized as ng, nc, nch, nx. (See comments at "ng" below.) When they are not so latinized, they still may be pronounced [ngg], [ngk], [ngk], [ngks].
i short [i], long [ie], but sometimes like [ee], or [y] before another vowel. See comments below.
j [j]
ng [ngg] (as in "finger"); nc, nch, nx [ngk] (as in "bank," "anchor," "Sphinx"); BUT ng and nc generally are prounounced [nj] and [ns] before ae, e, i, oe and y, as in "longitude," "angel," "ancillary," etc.
o short [o], long [oh] (like unstressed [uh] in the Greek ending -os as in rhinoceros)
oe [ee] (sometimes [oh])
oi [oi] (Greek diphthong usually latinized as "oe" [ee].) NOTE: The suffix -oides "like" is a latinization of Greek -o + -eides. The latinized combination "oi" in this case is NOT the same as the Greek diphthong "oi," and, in principle, should be pronounced in separate syllables as [o] + [ie], thus -oides is o-IE-deez. However, English usage strongly favors the pronunciation -OI-deez, which oftens shifts the secondary stress in names to syllables that would not take an accent according to strict Latin rules.
ou [oo] (Greek diphthong usually latinized as "u" [oo]. Not to be confused with two syllable o + -us as in Achelous ak-e-LOH-us, etc.)
ph [f]
s [s], sometimes [z] at the end of suffixes. (Some speakers also change [s] to [z] before b, d, m, but [s] is preferred in Latin names.)
th [th]
u short [uh], long [oo]; sometimes as [yoo], sometimes [w] before vowels; unstressed [uh] (schwa) in final -us; rarely [v]
ui [oo-i] or [wee]
v [v]
x [ks], but [z] when the first letter of a name
y short [i], long [ie], sometimes [ee] or [y] before another vowel. See comments below.
z [z]
NOTES:
1. Pronouncing "i" and "y": In the Traditional English Method, the letters "i" and "y" can be pronounced in different ways when they come before another vowel. The following rules are generally followed: (1) pronounced as [ee] if the "i" or "y" is not stressed: -ius [ee-uhs], -ia [ee-uh], -ii [ee-ie]; (2) as [ie] if the "i" or "y" is stressed: Cardiodon kahr-DIE-o-don, polyodon po-LIE-o-don, Astyanax a-STIE-a-naks; Megatheriidae meg-a-thee-RIE-i-dee; (3) sometimes as [y] if the "i" or "y" is unstressed before a vowel, or after a stressed long vowel Maiasaura MAY-ya-SAWR-a
Final "i" in inflections (genitive case, plural) is [ie].
It is quite common to pronounce "i" and "y" long as [ie] in zoological names even if the "i" or "y" were short in Greek and Latin, and occur in unstressed syllables.
2. Both consonants in the combinations chth (Gr. khth), cn (Greek kn), ct (Greek kt), gn, ps, pt, x (= ks) should be pronounced internally in zoological names: Dorygnathus do-RIG-na-thus "spear jaw". These combinations of consonants are usually simplified to [th], [n], [t], [n], [s], [t] and [z] in English when they occur at the beginning of a word or zoological name: Gnathosaurus NATH-o-SAWR-us; Pteranodon te-RAN-o-don.
3. The combinations ci and ti, pronounced [sh] in many scientific words, are usually pronounced [si] and [ti] in zoological names.
(2) The Reformed Academic Method of pronunciation is intended for classical students and scholars who read ancient literature, and tries to approximate the actual prononciations used by ancient Romans. All the details of this system need not be discussed here, but the more important differences with the Traditional English Method include: long "a" pronounced [ah], long "i" pronounced [ee]; short "u" pronounced [u]; the Latin diphthongs are pronounced: ae [ie], au [ow], oe [oi]; c and g always "hard" like [k] and [g]; j like [y]; v like [w]. Particularly careful classical scholars will even pronounce Greek y as [ü] as in German or French rather than like i [ee].
In as much as dinosaur names are not works of classical literature, the word elements from Greek and Latin origin are best pronounced according to the Traditional English Method, as modified by common usage in scientific and medical fields. Mixing the Traditional English Method with the Reformed Method, as in the pronouncations Triceratops trie-KER-a-tops or Ornithomimus or-NITH-o-MEEM-us, is a somewhat confusing--to be consistent, "saurus" would have to be pronounced "SOWR-us" as well! Note that Quaesitosaurus pronounced according to the Traditional English Method comes out kwee-SIE-to-SAWR-us. Some books have indicated the pronounciation as kwie-SEE-to-SAWR-us, or kway-SEE-to-SAWR-us by mixing in the Reformed Academic Method. It is crucial to be consistent, particularly when pronouncing the genitive ending in species names, and the plural endings in higher category names: Traditional English Method: -i [ie], -ae [ee]; Reformed Academic: -i [ee], -ae [ie].
ACCENT
Dinosaur names, like all generic and specific names in zoology, are considered Latin words. In Greek and Latin the main accent in a word is on either the next-to-last syllable (penultimate), if that syllable is long according to Latin grammar, as in rhododendren [roh-do-DEN-dren], hyaena [hie-EE-na], Patroclus [pa-TROH-klus], Medusa [me-DOO-sa]; or on the before-next-to-last (antpenultimate) syllable, if the next-to-last syllable is short according to Latin grammar, as in rhinoceros" [rie-NOS-e-ros], hippopotamus [hip-o-POT-a-mus], Sophocles [SOF-o-kleez], Astyanax [a-STIE-a-naks].
The penultimate syllable in a Greek or Latin word or combining form is LONG when it contains:
1. a long vowel followed by another vowel, by a diphthong, by a consonant, or by any combination of consonants: -rhinos, -ornithos, -thorakos, regina, peloros, giganteus,
2. a diphthong: keteios; dromaios, hyaina, -ourus
3. a short vowel immediately followed by x or z (= ks or dz), a double consonant, or two or more consonants EXCEPT ch, kh, ph, th, and the combinations with l and r noted below: akantha, dynastes, praxis, thalassa,
The penultimate syllable in a Greek or Latin word or combining form is SHORT when it contains a short vowel immediately followed by:
1. another vowel that does not form a diphthong: "plo" is short in Greek diploos = DI-plo-os
2. a single consonant EXCEPT x and z (which represent the paired consonants ks and dz): "ti" is short in Greek daktylos = DAK-ti-los.
3. the digraphs ch, kh, ph, th (which each represent a single sound): "da" is short in edaphos = E-da-phos
4. the consonant combinations bl, br; cl, cr; chl, chr; dl, dr; fl, fr; gl, gr; kl, kr; khl, khr; pl, pr; phl, phr; tl, tr; thl, thr: the syllable "pa" is short in hypakros HY-pa-kros; "la" is short in elaphros E-la-phros.
Stressed Connecting Vowels
Undoubtedly the most confusing feature of the accent in Latin words, or latinized Greek words, is the shifting of the main stress to the connecting vowel in combinations such as "rhinoceros" (a Greek word formed from rhin- "nose" + -o- (a connecting vowel) + ceros "horn" (a contracted form of ceratos, derived from Greek keras "horn"), pronounced rie-NOS-e-ruhs in English: The "e" in Greek keras "horn" is short, making the next-to-last syllable short, thus shifting the main accent to the before-next-to-last syllable, even though the core of the stressed syllable is a meaningless connecting vowel "o" rather than a genuine word root.
The only way to know if a vowel is long or short in a Greek or Latin word is to check in a lexicon, a tedious and time-consuming process. Regrettably, there is no obvious way to distinguish between long and short vowels based on latinized spelling alone: Greek soma "body" had a long "o" and takes the main accent at the end of a name (as in Spondylosoma SPON-dil-o-SOH-ma), while Greek stoma "mouth" had a short "o", meaning that the accent should be shifted to the syllable immediately preceding it in names such as Ornithostoma or-ni-THOS-to-ma, Ambystoma am-BIS-to-ma, etc. This peculiar pattern has even been imposed on modern creations such as "speedometer" spe-DOM-e-tuhr (English speed + -o- + Greek meter: the first "e" in meter was short), or "lobotomy" lo-BOT-o-mee (from Greek lobos "lobe" + -o- + Greek tomo "cut": the first "o" in tomo was short), as well as redefined classical words such as "apophysis" a-POF-i-sis (from Greek apo "from" + Greek physis "form, growth": the "y" in physis was short).
Logical Stress on Short Next-to-last Syllables
Faced with the difficulty of determining vowel length, and the counter-intuitive nature of stressing a meaningless connecting vowel, many modern researchers stress the next-to-last-syllable in dinosaur names even when the penultimate syllable is short according to Latin grammar. In such cases, speakers tend to pronounce the stressed short vowel long: Coelophyis SEEL-o-FIE-sis (by-the-book Latin method: see-LOF-i-sis, like "apophysis" with a short "y"). Such a pronunciation might be justified in many cases by the logic of the etymology--the stress goes on a logical word element (here, the Greek word physis) rather than on the meaningless connecting vowel "o." In other cases, however, such alternative pronounciations cannot be justified on any formal grounds. Deinonychus (formed from the Greek deinos "terrible" and -onychus "claw") is often pronounced DIE-no-NIEK-us (or DIE-no-NIK-us), with stress on the next-to-last syllable, even though the "y" is short in Greek, and the word root is onyx, onykhos "claw," accented as ON-iks, ON-i-kos. In this case, both formal Latin rules and the logic of the etymology would put the main stress on the before-next-to-last syllable: die-NON-i-kus.
Given the complexity of determining where the stress accent should go, an additional set of guidelines is proposed:
1. When a generic name or a species name is a word taken directly from ancient Greek or Latin lexicons, and used "as-is," the name should keep the accent assigned by classical grammar: thus the species names: Latin fragilis FRA-ji-lis; Greek antirrhopus an-TIHR-o-pus; latinized Greek giganteus ji-gan-TEE-us
2. When a generic name or a species name is a modern combination of Greek or Latin word elements that is correctly formed according to the rules of Greek and Latin grammar, using regular contractions, combining forms, and connecting vowels--i.e., a name that could have passed muster as a genuine classical word, the ideal pronounciation would use the accent required by classical grammar. This approach may mean sometimes stessing a connecting vowel rather than a word root, as occurred in ancient Greek and Latin: Compsognathus komp-SOG-na-thus; Saurolophus saw-ROL-o-fus; Chirostenotes kie-ro-STEN-o-teez.
Given the common modern usage of many pronunciations that do not assign stress accents by-the-book, a useful distinction may be made between names created by 19th century researchers, who were generally versed in Greek and Latin, and names created by 20th century researchers, who generally have had little or no formal training in Greek and Latin.
Wherever possible, the by-the-book accent should be used with 19th century names, to reflect the way their authors actually pronounced them. Thus Leidy's Antrodemus should be pronounced an-TROD-e-mus; Seeley's Ornithostoma as or-ni-THOS-to-ma; Lydekker's Cryptodraco krip-TOD-ra-ko. Some widely used names can be considered exceptions. Although Marsh undoubtedly pronounced Apatosaurus AP-a-to-SAWR-us (like the mineral name apatite), and Cope rendered Coelophysis see-LOF-i-sis (like the anatomical term apophysis), the pronunciations a-PAT-o-SAWR-us and SEEL-o-FIE-sis are thoroughly established in current usage, and should be preferred.
More flexibility can be exercised with 20th century names. According to Don Baird, Barnum Brown pronounced Hypacrosaurus with a stress on the second syllable. Lull likewise pronounced Anatosaurus, with a stress on the second syllable. This pattern, used with many modern names, should be accepted, although I have indicated unused the by-the-book pronunciations for the secondary accent in a number of cases.
3. When a generic name or a species name is a modern combination of Greek or Latin word elements that is irregularly formed, using arbitrary contractions or incorrect combining forms (the "cut-and-paste" method), or has an ambiguous etymology, or is a name that mixes Greek and Latin word elements in hybrid forms or with word elements from modern languages, the stress accents should fall on meainingful word elements wherever possible, or, failing that, alternate between stressed and unstressed syllables. Thus: Dyslocoposaurus dis-LOHK-o-SAWR-us (rather than "DIS-lo-ko-SAWR-us") Giganotosaurus ji-ga-NOT-o-SAWR-us (rather than "ji-GAN-o-to-SAWR-us") Therizinosaurus THER-i-ZIN-o-SAWR-us (rather than "the-RIZ-i-no-SAWR-us").
A case can be made for consistency, however. If a regular pattern exists for shifting the stress onto the before-next-to-last syllable with certain commonly used combining forms, the perferred method would be to stick to the pattern. Thus the Chinese pterosaur names using Greek-derived -pterus "wing" (with a short "e"): Huanhepterus hwahn-HUHP-ter-us "Huan River wing," Dsungaripterus JUNG-gah-RIP-ter-us, "Dsungar wing" etc.
Stress in Names not from Latin or Greek
Commemorative Names with -ia and -ius
It is common practice to form commemorative names by appending either the Latin suffix -ia [ee-uh] or -ius [ee-uhs] (less often -ium [ee-uhm] to a proper name for a person, a people, a geological period, or a geographical location. In such cases, without exception, the main accent on the name must come on the syllable immediately preceding the suffix (the antepenultimate in the Latin name). The stressed vowel is then pronounced long in most cases, even if the vowel was short or neutral in the original name. Thus Volkheimeria is volk-hie-MEER-ee-a, not "VOLK-hie-mer-ee-a" or "volk-HIE-mer-ee-ah" as indicated a two recent books.
Ideally, the non-Latin part of the name should be pronounced to approximate as much as possible the original pronunciation in the source language rather than treat the spelling of the name as entirely Latin. Thus Ingenia should be pronounced ing-GAY-nee-a, not "in-JEE-nee-a" or "in-JEN-ee-a." The source is the Mongolian word inge ING-guh "she-camel" (from the geographical name Ingeni-Khobur). The "n" is added to the stem according to Monogolian grammar, while the requirements of Latin shift the accent to the second syllable. The "e," originally reduced to a neutral vowel [uh] in Monoglian pronunciation is now stressed, so it is lengthened to [ay], resembling the sound a stressed "e" would have in Mongolian. Mongolian also pronounces "n" before "g" as ng + g as in English "finger" or in the word "Mongol" itself.
When a name is totally made up, or is an anagram, the standard practice is to apply a Traditional English Method pronunciation. Thus the name Fulengia, formed as an arbitrary anagram for Lufeng (from Chinese Lufeng (Lufeng Basin, Yunnan Province)), may be pronounced foo-LEN-jee-a, as if it were a Latin word.
The main stress in a dinosaur name that is not derived from Greek or Latin, and does not have a recognizable Latin ending should nonetheless come on the next-to-last syllable (or, in some cases, on the before-next-to-last syllable)--ALL generic names are considered Latin words regardless of their real origin. For example, Bagaraatan is formed by arbitrarily contracting two Mongolian words (baga "little" + araatan "predator") without a formal Latin ending. The name should be pronounced with the main stress on the next-to-last syllable [BAH-gah-RAH-tahn], as if it were a regular Latin word.
When names are formed by combining a word or name from a modern language with a Greek or Latin word suchs as "saurus," "suchus," "dactylus," "pes", etc. the secondary stress should try to follow the stress pattern typical of the original language. In languages such as Chinese, where pitch is important, the distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables in a name is less clear, and all syllables may be given a secondary stress or an arbitrary alternating pattern of stress, following the most common pattern found in English.
Proper Names
Generic names that are formed by combining the name of a person from a modern language with "saurus," "suchus," "odon," etc. pose a number of problems. The "ideal" practice would be to retain as much of the original pronunciation as possible rather resort to the "sounded-out" method or to treat the combination as a word composed entirely in Latin. Thus Stokesosaurus (named for Stokes) is usually pronounced stohk-so-SAWR-us, since the "e" is silent in English, and indicates that the "o" is long in the preceding syllable. The "all-Latin" reading would be the rather less euphonius STOH-kes-o-SAWR-us. Similarly, Piveteausawrus would be peev-toh-SAWR-us, reflecting the original French pronunciation with a silent "e." On the other hand, Lambeosaurus is almost always pronounced LAM-bee-o-SAWR-us rather the lam-o-SAWR-us, although both the "b" and "e" are silent in the English pronunciation of Lambe [lam]. It could be argued, however, that Lambe's name was first latinized as "Lambeus." Such exceptions aside, the best policy in my view is to approximate the original pronunciation of the modern name as much as English permits, and not to sound out the name as if it were derived from English or were all Latin.
This approach requires that the nationality of the person to be honored be known, as a guide to which language the name was originally pronounced in.
Abelisaurus was named for the Argentine museum director Roberto Abel (pronounced ah-BEL in Spanish, the "v"-like pronunciation of "b" between vowels in many dialects of Spanish not being relevant here). Logically, this pronounciation should be retained in the combination Abelisaurus as ah-BEL-i-SAWR-us, instead of "AY-be-li-SAWR-us" or "ay-BEE-li-SAWR-us" or "ah-BEE-li-SAWR-us" as suggested in some recent books.
Maleevosaurus is named for the Russian paleontologist Maleev (pronounced approximately mahl-YAY-yef, with a softened palatal "y" sound after the "l" and before the two "e's".). The preferred pronunciation would be mahl-YAY-yev-o-SAWR-us (the "v" being voiced before a vowel, unvoiced as "f" at the end of a word).
5. Names Derived from Modern Languages
The "ideal" method of pronouncing names derived wholly or in part from modern languages is to approximate the original pronunciation as much as English allows, provided the main accent in a name follows Latin rules. This approach contrasts with the "ideal" way of pronouncing Greek and Latin elements discussed above, which is to follow the rather arbitrary Traditional English Method consistently. Inasmuch as no one is completely certain how Greek and Latin were actually pronounced (particuarly the pitch accent), adopting an arbitrary system that follows the usual rules of English spelling makes sense. On the other hand, living speakers provide clear guidelines for pronouncing a name dervied from Chinese or Spanish, and the "preferred" pronunciation should incorporate such information whenever possible.
It is not uncommon, however, for English speakers to use a "sounded-out" pronunciation for foreign words and names, imposing the usual sound values Latin letters and combinations would have in English. In many cases, the results resemble the Traditional English Method of pronouncing Greek and Latin.
The "preferred" approach used here tries to avoid the "sounded-out" method as much as possible, particularly for Chinese names. Modification to an "ideal" pronounciation is sometimes necessary, however. For example, Spanish speakers do not pronounce the letter "h." However, English speakers do pronounce the "h" at the beginning of Hererrasaurus, from Hererra, a name from a Spanish-speaking country (Argentina). A more complex problem arises with Volkheimeria. The name is of German origin (Volkheimer), but was proposed for a researcher working in a Spanish-speaking country (Argentina). Should the "v" be pronounced [f] as in German, like [b] as in most dialects of Spanish, or like [v] as in English? In such cases, the standard English value of [v] would be preferred: volk-hie-MEER-ee-a, with the primary accent determined by Latin rules.
Chinese
Dinosaur names that incorporate words or names from the Chinses language deserve special attention. Some of the most exciting, and scientifically important dinosaur discoveries have been made in China in the past two decades. The meaning and pronunciation of dinosaur names with Chinese words roots, however, is a continuing source of confusion.
The explanation is not hard to find--three different systems for transcribing Chinese into Latin letters have been used in forming dinosaur names: The Wade-Giles system (which has a number of variants), the Post Office system, and pinyin. Add to this potential confusion the fact that researchers have not always followed these systems consistently or accurately, and the dimensions of the problems grow more daunting. A case in point is the name Tsintaosaurus, named for a city spelled Qingdao in pinyin and best approximated by the English pronunciation [CHING-DOW]. The latinized spelling is based on the Post Office version of the name Tsingtao (usually Ch'ing-tao in Wade-Giles), though why C. C. Young dropped the "g" is unclear. The "sounded-out" pronunciations given in some recent books, such as "tsin-tah-o-SAWR-us", "sin-tow-SAWR-us," "chin-dah-oo-SAWR-us,", "chin-TAY-oh-SAWR-us," etc., miss the mark badly, and should be avoided. Whatever the temptation to use the latinized spelling as a literal guide, the ideal approach is to go to the original Chinese version of the name: Tsintaosaurus should be pronounced CHING-DOW-SAWR-us, paralleling the Chinese version of the name Qingdaolong "Qingdao dragon," pronounced [ching-dow-lung]. In other cases, even this logical approach may not settle the issue. Yangchuanosaurus is called Yongchuanlong in Chinese, for Yongchuan (Wade-Giles: Yung-ch'uan; Post Office: Yungchwan) county. Why the latinized spelling is Yangchuanosaurus instead of "Yongchuanosaurus" is unclear to me, but perhaps is by analogy with the name of the famous Chinese paleontologist Yang, spelled Young in English. Nonethless, I have followed the Latin spelling and have given the pronunciation as YAHNG-CHWAHN-o-SAWR-us.
Explaining all the rules for transcribing Chinese in the Wade-Giles system is well beyond the scope of this introduction. However, the Wade-Giles system, and the Post Office system are both poorly suited to zoological nomenclature. For example, it is important in English to distinguish between the sounds [b] and [p]. Chinese makes similar distinctions in a slightly different way: [p] without a puff of breath (unaspirated) contrasts with [p] with a strong puff of breath (aspirated)--Chinese has no [b] sound as such. However, the [p] without a puff of breath is very similar in sound to an English [b], and the modern Chinese languges uses the contrast between unaspirated and aspired [p] the way English uses the contrast between [b] and [p], that is, phonemically to distinguish different words. In Wade-Giles, the unaspirated [p] is written "p," and the aspirated [p] is written "p'," the apostrophe indicating a strong puff of breath. In zoological nomenclature, however, the apostrophe cannot be used in spelling a name, so the distinct Chinese words "pan" and "p'an" would look the same--pan. Moreover, English speakers have tended to sound out names transcribed in the Wade-Giles or the Post Office system according to English rules, often in ways that completely distort the original Chinese pronunciation. Thus Peking, pronounced approximately [BAY-JING], came out [PEE-KING] in English, which no Chinese speaker would recognize.
After the 1948 revolution, scholars in China began developing a new system intended to give a more accurate phonetic transcription of Chinese into the Latin alphabet. Called pinyin (literally "spell sound") and based on the standard pronunciation used in the Chinese capital Beijing, it was adopted officially in 1958 for use in all publications in languages using the Latin alphabet produced in China. Pinyin romanization was adopted as the international standard at the Third United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, held in Athens, Greece, in 1977, and is now used in virtually all current atlases, dictionaries,. accurately. Importantly, it is now routinely (but not exclusively) used by Chinese paleontologists in composing dinosaur names that incorporate Chinese words, proper names or place names. The meanings of dinosaur names in this lexicon give Chinese geographical names in pinyin form.
A preferred pronunciation for Chinese words in dinosaur names would try to:
1. Base the pronunciation on the original Chinese version of a word or a place name, and not on the latizined spelling, which may be misleading when simply "sounded-out."
2. Pronounce combinations that are a single syllable in Chinese as a single syllable in English: Dian [dyen] NOT die-an or dee-an); xuan [shwen], NOT shoo-an, xiao [shyow] NOT shee-ow) etc.
3. Avoid pronouncing a separate "g" in the combination -"ngo": Dianchungosaurus (DYEN-JUNG-o-SAWR-us, NOT DYEN-JUNG-go-SAWR-us). 4. Pronounce the combinations dz and ts at the beginning of words.
Chinese Pronunciations
Some of the more important differences between English spelling rules and pinyin are noted below, with approximate English equivalents. Wade-Giles and Post Office transcriptions are noted in some cases.
a [ah] as in father
ang [ahng] similar to English "gong" (NOT [ang] as in English "gang")
ai [ie]
an [ahn] after most consonants BUT pronounced like more [en] as in English "ten" in the pinyin combinations -ian: dian [dyen], yan [yen], yuan [ywen], juan [jwen], quan [chwen], xuan [shwen] (Wade-Giles uses en as in yen, etc.)
ao [ow] as Mao
c [ts] as in "its"
ch [ch] as in "chop" (Wade-Giles ch')
e [uh] (often written "o" in Wade-Giles) thus Omeisaurus UH-may-SAWR-us; Huanhepterus hwahn-HUHP-ter-us; BUT like [e] after pinyin i, y, ju, xu, qu
eng [uhng] as in English "strung" (NOT [eng] as in "length")
ei [ay] as in "bay"
en [uhn]
er [uhr] as in "sir" (Wade-Giles "ehr")
g always hard [g] as in "get" and "go" (Wade-Giles k)
i [ee] after "y" and most consonants (BUT i stands for a sound like unstressed [uh] after pinyin c, s, z and like [uhr] as in American English "sir" after pinyin ch, r, sh, and zh, pronounced with the tongue flexed back (Wade-Giles "ih"). Before a vowel, i is pronounced like [y] iang [yahng], etc. However, as noted above, ian is pronounced more like "yen," (thus Tianchiasaurus is best approximated as TYEN-CHUHR-a-SAWR-us and Dianchungosaurus as DYEN-JUNG-o-SAWR-us)
ie [ye] as in "yet"
iong [yoong] (Technically, [yüng], with an ü like in German Jüngling).
j similar to English [j] as in "jingle," but pronounced more in the front of the mouth (Wade-Giles "ch"; Post Office "k")
o [aw] as in law
ong [ung] as in Karl Jung (NOT [ong] as in "long") (Wade-Giles ung), BUT [üng] after y and i, here [yoong]. NOTE the difference between English "lung" [luhng] and Chinese long (Wade-Giles lung) "dragon," pronounced [lung] with u as in "put," thus also Chinese dong "east" [dung], etc.
ou [oh] (Post Office ow)
q [ch], as in "cheek" but pronounced more in the front of the mouth (Wade-Giles "ch'"; Post Office "ts" or "k")
r [zh] (Wade-Giles "j") (BUT pinyin "er" is like American English [uhr])
u [oo] after w and most consonants Chinese also has a rounded vowel [ü], like in French and German, that is usually approximated in English by [oo]. This sound was usually spelled "ü" in Wade-Giles: Yünnan. Pinyin has avoided using the letter ü, and has devised a different solution. The letter "u" preceded by the letter j, q, x or y is pronounced [ü], while the letter "u" preceded by the letters ch, sh, zh, w, or any other single consonant is pronounced [oo] or [u]. An English speaker would not ordinarily distinguish between pinyin zhu [joo] and ju [joo] ([jü] in Chinese).
ue [wuh], BUT like [we] (as in "wet") after pinyin j, q, x, y
ui [way] (Wade-Giles "uei"; Post Office "wei")
un [wun] with [u] as in "put," BUT like [yün] after j, q, x, y, here [yoon]
w [w], semi-vowel version of [oo] as in English. However, Chinese also has a semi-vowel version of [ü], similar to the sound in French nuit and not found in English, approximated here by [w] as well.
x [sh] similar to English "sh" as in "she," but pronounced more in the front to the mouth (Wade-Giles "hs"; Post Office "s").
y [y]
z [dz]
zh [j] as in English "jump" NOTE: Not to be confused with the phonetic symbol [zh] = pinyin "r" used here. (Wade-Giles "ch")
III. CLASSIFICATION
The classification of dinosaurs and other Mesozoic reptiles is currently a subject of much research and debate. It is difficult to find a broad consensus on taxonomic categories designated below the suborder level for many genera. I have tried to find at least the family and suborder for most forms, based largely on The Dinosauria, Mesozoic Meanderings II, Fossil Record II and Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution.
IV. TECHNICAL TERMS
Available Name; Valid Name; Nomen Nudum
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) distinguishes between a nominal taxon (here a "name") and a taxonomic taxon (here a "taxon"). The provisions of the ICZN apply to nominal taxa from the level of a superfamily down to a subspecies. A name that is published according to the requirements of the ICZN is considered an available name. To be available, a name must appear in a work intended to provide a permanent scientific record, and must be accompanied by a description that purports to define the taxonomic taxon it designates. Additionally, a generic name must have a type species with a type specimen that provides a basis for determining its taxonomic identity. The precise requirements for availability have been made progressively more stringent according to the original publication date of a name, and many early names would not be available in their original published form under the rules imposed on more recently proposed names. A name that is first published without a defining description of the taxon it designates is considered a nomen nudum ("bare name"), and can be made an available name when the taxon is formally defined. An available name that is not preoccupied (i.e., not a junior homonym (see below)) or not a junior synonym (see below) is considered a valid name. Because opinions may differ among researchers over subjective synonyms, an available name that is not preoccupied may be referred to as a potentially valid name. NOTE: It is important to distinguish between a "valid name," a clearly defined concept in the ICZN, and a "valid taxon," a widely used term without a formal definition (there is no "International Code of Taxonomy"). In most cases, "valid taxon" appears to mean a taxonomic taxon that a particular author chooses to recognize on any number of subjective grounds. It can mean a taxon that the author thinks is distinct from another recognized taxon; a taxon that may or may not have a diagnositic type specimen, but which has an accustomed taxonomic meaning the author accepts; a taxon widely cited in literature by other researchers whose judgment the author respects, etc.
Synonyms
Synonyms are two or more different available names for the same taxonomic taxon, and may be objective synonyms (different names applied to the same name-bearing type specimen) or subjective synonyms (different names applied to different name-bearing type specimens that are later identified as belonging to the same taxon). Synonyms are referred to as "senior" or "junior" depending on their priority of publication. Except under special circumstances, or by a ruling of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, the earliest established synonym that is not preoccupied is the valid name for a taxon: Apatosaurus Marsh 1877 has priority over the junior synonym Brontosaurus Marsh 1879. For convenience, I have indicated commonly recognized synonyms in parentheses with an equal sign, but have used a question mark to show possible synonyms that require more research, or that reflect individual judgments. More synonyms are possible than I have indicated.
Homonyms
Homonyms are two or more available names with identical spellings that are used for different taxa, and are referred to as "senior" or "junior" homonyms depending on their priority of publication. Under current rules of nomenclature, two or more generic names are not considered homonyms if their spellings differ by at least one letter, even if they are derived from the same word roots: Kentrosaurus Hennig 1915 is not a junior homonym of Centrosaurus Lambe 1904. Except under special circumstances, or by a ruling of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, a junior homonym is considered a preoccupied name, and must be replaced either with the earliest junior synonym of the name that is not itself preoccupied, or with a new name. I have noted preoccupied names in parentheses with their proposed replacement names.
Nomen Dubium
In vertebrate paleontology, the descriptive term "nomen dubium" ("doubtful name") typically applies to a generic name when its type species is judged to be based on an inadequate or unidentifiable type specimen used to establish its taxonomic identity. The official name-bearing type specimen may be missing important diagnostic features, be poorly preserved, be from an immature or diseased individual, be based on material that possibly mixes remains of unrelated kinds of animals, or otherwise may be found problematical or unsuitable for defining or diagnosing a taxon at a species level, and for establishing possible synonymy. I have listed generic names usually recognized as nomina dubia with "nomen dubium" in parentheses, but their doubtful status is a matter of professional judgment or convenience, and may differ according to the opinions of individual researchers, or may change as a result of new research, new discoveries, redefinition of a taxon, or assignment of a new type specimen. It is possible for a nomen dubium to be a valid name for purposes of nomenclature, although some researchers may not treat the taxon it designates as a "valid taxon" (i.e., a taxon recognized as distinct and diagnosable for purposes of taxonomy). Although a name designated as a nomen dubium may have a type specimen that is not diagnostic at a species level, the material nonetheless may be diagnostic at a family or a suborder level. Such "doubtful names" thus may be of some use for faunal lists in biogeography or biostratigraphy. However, listing such nomina dubia may also artificially increase the apparent number of biologically justifiable taxa, since multiple names may actually apply to specimens of a single taxon.
In some cases, a long-established name may have an accustomed meaning based on later material attributed to a taxon rather than on the original name-bearing type specimen itself. This situation may not necessarily pose problems, since the ICZN characterizes nomenclatural stability as "a long accepted name in its accustomed meaning," not strictly its original meaning. The extent to which the name-bearing type specimen should be diagnostic is a source of continuing debate. G. G. Simpson argued for a distinction between (1) a type specimen that serves as the official name bearer for historical reasons, but may not itself be "typical" of the proposed taxonomic taxon it designates, and (2) other type material that provides a basis for more fully defining the taxonomic taxon in the judgment of a particular researcher. However, this distinction is not formally recognized by the ICZN, and some current researchers have insisted on a more diagnostic role for the name-bearing type specimen itself, and have assigned "nomen dubium" status to a number of well known dinosaur names with type species based on problematic type specimens. Other researchers may take a more flexible approach in maintaining the established usage of a well-known name with a problematic type specimen, and may consider nomenclatural convenience (the family names Hadrosauridae and Ceratopsidae are well-established in the literature, although their type genera Hadrosaurus and Ceratops are based on type material that lacks key diagnositic features), historical usage based on other material (Iguanodon is known from ample skeletal remains, but its name-bearing type specimen consists of a few probably undiagnostic teeth), biological plausibility (the unlikely coexistence of two very similar but distinct taxa in the same location at the same time, allowing for individual, ontogenetic, and sexual variations within a population, etc.), and other issues beyond the strict diagnostic adequacy of the name-bearing type specimen.
Apart from a few ambiguous cases, I have not listed names published without a diagnostic description (nomina nuda), or as misspellings of established names. A few recently proposed names listed below first appeared in publications not normally cited for purposes of zoological nomenclature (i.e., a work "issued publicly for the purpose of providing a permanent scientific record"), and have unclear nomenclatural status. I also have omitted a few recently proposed genera pending a check of the original descriptions.
Acknowledgments
I particularly would like to thank Tom Holtz, Donald Baird, Ken Carpenter, Tracy Ford, George Olshevsky, and George Shkurkin for many helpful comments, suggestions, and corrections, as well as for providing photocopies and other useful research materials. Any errors or misconceptions are my own, however. Comments, queries, and corrections are welcomed.