Fraternities and sororities

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Fraternities and sororities (from the Latin words frater and soror, meaning "brother" and "sister" respectively) are fraternal social organizations for undergraduate students. In English, the term refers mainly to such organizations at colleges and universities in North America, although it is also applied to analogous European groups also known as corporations. Similar, but less common, organizations also exist for secondary school students.

Typically, fraternities are single-sex, initiatory organizations and membership is considered active during the undergraduate years only (although a notable exception to this are historically black, multicultural, and professional fraternities, in which active membership continues, and into which members are often initiated long after the completion of their undergraduate degrees). Fraternities may sometimes be considered mutual aid societies, providing academic and social activities. Some groups also maintain a fraternity house, providing residential and dining facilities for members.

Contents 1 Terminology 2 Types of fraternities 2.1 Philanthropy 2.2 Competition and cooperation 2.3 Structure and organization 3 Rituals and symbols 3.1 Pins or Badges 3.2 Objects 4 Fraternity and sorority houses 5 Joining a fraternity or sorority 6 Controversy and criticism 6.1 Hazing issues 6.2 Exclusionary nature 7 North American fraternities and sororities in other regions 8 History and development 8.1 Beginnings 8.2 The Fraternity system becomes "national" 9 Sororities 10 High school fraternities and sororities 11 Interfraternity organizations 12 Notes 13 See also 14 External links

[edit] Terminology

The term fraternities, often colloquially shortened to "frats," generally refers to either all-male groups, mixed-sex groups or female groups that predate the term "sorority" like Alpha Phi, Delta Gamma and Pi Beta Phi. The female-only equivalent is usually called a sorority, a word first coined for Gamma Phi Beta, by Dr. Frank Smalley.

The term social fraternity is used to differentiate four-year, undergraduate, and frequently residential fraternities from other organizations, many of which also have Greek-letter names, such as honor societies, academic societies, or service fraternities and sororities.

The names of North American fraternities and sororities generally consist of two or three Greek letters, often the initials of a Greek motto. For this reason, at some universities, fraternities and sororities are often referred to as "Greek," as seen in phrases such as Greek community, Greek system, Greek life, or members as Greeks. An individual fraternity or sorority is often called a Greek house or simply house (distinct from physical buildings known as fraternity and sorority houses, which are maintained by some but not all groups). The use of Greek letters started with Phi Beta Kappa (then a social fraternity and today an honor society) at the College of William & Mary. Several groups, however, do not use Greek letters. Examples include Acacia, FarmHouse, and Triangle, as well as final club, eating club and secret societies at some Ivy League colleges, such as Skull and Bones at Yale.

[edit] Types of fraternities

The most recognizable form of fraternity is the social fraternity, which present themselves as societies to help their members better themselves in a social setting.

A variety of fraternities are distinguished from social fraternities by their function. They can be specifically organized for service to the community, for professional advancement, or for scholastic achievement.

Certain fraternities were established for specific religious or ethnic groups. Some social fraternities are expressly Christian, such as Alpha Chi Rho and Lambda Chi Alpha. Jewish fraternities, such as Zeta Beta Tau, Alpha Epsilon Pi, and Sigma Alpha Mu, were established, in part, in response to restrictive clauses that existed in many social fraternities' laws barring Jewish membership, which were removed in the mid-20th century.^[1] A controversy remains between the idea of creating supportive communities for distinct groups on the one hand and the intent to create non-discriminatory communities on the other.

There are also fraternities with a cultural or multicultural emphasis. For example, Sigma Iota, founded in 1912, was the first Hispanic fraternity. It later merged with other Hispanic fraternities and organizations around the nation to form Phi Iota Alpha which is the oldest existing Hispanic fraternity, founded in 1931.^[2] The Phi Sigma Alpha fraternity in Puerto Rico can also trace its roots back to Sigma Iota. There are now 23 Latino fraternities in the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations. A distinct set of black fraternities and sororities also exists, although black students are not barred from non-black fraternities and there are black members of non-black houses.

Fraternities designed for particular class years do exist, but are usually categorized separately from other types of fraternities. While these were once common in older institutions in the Northeast, the only surviving underclass society is Theta Nu Epsilon, which is specifically for Sophomores. Many senior class societies also survive, and they are often simply referred to as Secret Societies.

[edit] Philanthropy

Philanthropy is usually made a part of any fraternity's or sorority's program and supported by all active members. Typically, a chapter will either engage in fund-raising activities or the members will volunteer for programs. These either benefit the academic community or the public at large. Long-term relationships can also exist between a particular fraternity or sorority and one of the large national disease-specific charitable organizations. Some fraternities like Pi Kappa Phi own and operate their own philanthropy, Push America, which works with individual chapters to serve people with disabilities. Phi Sigma Alpha has the Sigma Foundation.

[edit] Competition and cooperation

Early fraternal societies were very competitive for members, for academic honors, and for any other benefit or gain. Some of this competition was seen as divisive on college campuses. Today there is still competition, but that competition is intended to be within limits, and for nobler purposes, such as charitable fundraising. Often, fraternities compete in various sporting events. There is also a greater emphasis on interfraternity cooperation. The single greatest effort along these lines was the creation of the National Interfraternity Conference a century ago, which was intended to minimize conflicts, destructive competition, and encourage student members to recognize members of other fraternities and sororities as people who share common interests.

[edit] Structure and organization

Most fraternities were originally organized on one campus. A one campus fraternity would be called a "local". A local can authorize chapters of the same name at other campuses. After the first authorized chapter, a local would be considered a "national", even if only two chapters are established. Given the development over the past 180 years, North America now has several large national organizations with hundreds of chapters. The likelihood of any local organization now growing to such a scale is small. Two or more nationals can also merge, and some of the larger nationals were created by merger. Several national fraternities are international, usually implying chapters in Canada.

A local organization can petition one of the existing national organizations and be absorbed into their organization dropping all ties to the former local organization. Recently this has become the preferred method for expansion within national organizations because the members have already formed a bond and presence on campus but are changing their name, ritual, and structure.

The central business offices of the organizations are also commonly referred to as "Nationals". Nationals may place certain requirements on individual chapters to standardize rituals and policies regarding membership, housing, finances, or behavior. These policies are generally codified in a constitution and bylaws. Fraternities may once have been governed by the original chapter, but virtually all have adopted some version of governance with executive officers who report to a board of trustees, and 'legislative' body consisting of periodic conventions of delegates from all the chapters.

[edit] Rituals and symbols

Most fraternities and sororities today maintain traditions which are generally symbolic in nature and closely guarded secrets, calling it their ritual. They include an initiation ceremony, but may also include passwords, songs, handshakes, and the form of meeting, amongst other things. Meetings of the active members are generally secret and not to be discussed without the formal approval of the chapter as a whole.

For organizations with Greek letters composing their name, these letters are the initials of a motto (such as Delta Upsilon), a set of virtues (such as Alpha Kappa Lambda), or the history of its organization (such as Phi Tau).

Fraternities and sororities often have a number of distinctive emblems, such as colors, flags, flowers, in addition to a badge (or pin), crest, and/or seal. An open motto (indicating that the organization has a "secret motto" as well) is used to express the unique ideals of a fraternity or sorority.

[edit] Pins or Badges

Pins have become increasingly popular to collect, even by individuals that never were members. Groups such as the Fraternity Pin Collector Society have collected thousands of pins worth tens of thousands of dollars in individual collections while organizations such as Kappa Kappa Gamma's "Keepers of the Key" work to reunite lost or stolen badges with their original owners.^[3]

According to the preface in the Sixth Edition (1918) of The Sorority Handbook by Delta Delta Delta founder Ida Shaw Martin, the primary fraternal jewelers of the late 19th/early 20th centuries were D. L. Auld Co. of Columbus, L. G. Balfour Co. of Attleboro, Mass., Burr, Patterson and Co. of Detroit, Upmeyer Company of Milwaukee, A. H. Fetting Co. of Baltimore, Hoover and Smith Co. of Philadelpha, O. C. Lanphear of Galesburg, Ill., Miller Jewelry Co. of Cincinnati, J. F. Newman of New York, Edward Roehm of Detroit, and Wright, Kay and Co. of Detroit. Currently the most widely used jewelers are Herff Jones, Jostens, and Balfour. Jewelers' initials and stampings are typically found on the back of pins along with the member name and/or chapter information. The history of fraternal jewelers is important when determining age of non-dated jewelry pieces.

Since fraternity and sorority pins are used as the primary symbols for societies, licensing and marketing concerns have developed. As a result, many of the larger organizations have had to put a legal team on retainer as consultants.

[edit] Objects

Apparel, (shirts, pants, bags, jewelry, key chains) is often worn by members with their Greek letters on them. These shirts and other articles may later be used for a Pass Down Ceremony between seniors and fellow members. Seniors may choose to pass down some or all of the clothing they own that is associated with the sorority. Some of the shirts are ten or more years old and in some chapters, girls will compete for them. In those chapters, generally members feel it is an honor to have older artifacts. At some institutions, it is considered inappropriate to wear apparel with the society's name when the member is consuming alcohol. It is considered disrespectful to have their letters on when drinking, regardless of their age. Also, it is generally taboo for non-members to wear any apparel with a group's letters.

Membership pins are not worn at all times. Some organizations limit pin-wearing to times of professional or business dress, also known as “Pin Attire.” The pins are kept forever, they are not expected to return them or hand them down.

[edit] Fraternity and sorority houses

Unique among most campus organizations, members of social fraternities and sororities often live together in a large house or distinct part of the university dormitories. This can help emphasize the "bonds of brotherhood (or sisterhood)" and provide a place of meeting for the members of the organization as well as alumni. For reasons of cost, liability, and stability, housing is usually owned or overseen by an alumni corporation or the national headquarters of the fraternity or sorority. As a result, some houses have visitor restrictions, and some national organizations restrict or prohibit alcohol on the premises.^[4][5]

At some colleges where chapters do not have residential houses for the general membership, they may still have chapter houses where meals are served for their membership and guests.^[6]

[edit] Joining a fraternity or sorority

The process of joining a fraternity or sorority commonly begins with a "formal recruitment" period, often called "rush week," which usually consists of events and activities designed for members and potential members to learn about each other and the organization. At the end of the formal recruitment period, organizations give "bids," or invitations to membership. Most organizations have a period of "pledgeship" before extending full membership. Some organizations have changed the name of pledgeship due to negative connotations to the process (such as calling pledges "postulants") the name "new members" is often used, or have given up the process in favor of other joining requirements. Upon completion of the pledgeship and all its requirements, the active members will invite the pledges to be initiated and become full members. Initiation often includes secret ceremonies and rituals.

Requirements may be imposed on those wishing to pledge either by the school or the organization itself, often including a minimum grade point average, wearing a pledge pin, learning about the history and structure of the fraternity or sorority, and performing public service. When a school places an age or tenure requirement on joining, this is called "deferred recruitment," as joining is deferred for a semester or year. The pledgeship period also serves as a probationary period in which both the organization and the pledge decide if they are compatible and will have a fulfilling experience.

[edit] Controversy and criticism

[edit] Hazing issues

Hazing can be defined as the ritualistic harassment, or abuse of individuals or a group. More than just physical acts, hazing can be mental and emotional. Any activity that ridicules, humiliates, embarrasses, causes mental anguish, confuses, frustrates, or causes undue stress can be considered hazing. In “Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking,” Hank Nuwer provides a list of the different techniques that are considered hazing—“burning, sexual favors, drugs, kidnapping, branding, bribes”—on American college campuses.^[7] Hazing should be distinguished from the branding tradition of historically African-American Fraternities and Sororities. Members of these organizations claim to brand each other as a form of decoration, not unlike tattooing. Originally popularized by Omega Psi Phi, almost all historically African-American Greek letter organizations have developed some tradition of decorative branding.^{[citation needed]}

There are two different kinds of hazing, in general. The first is rough behavior in initiations, and the second occurs in a probationary membership period, often called a pledge process, where physical or mental stresses can be maintained for weeks at a time.

Occasional incidents of hazing have harmed the reputation of college fraternities. The first publicized incident was probably the accidental killing of Mortimer Leggett by the Cornell chapter of Kappa Alpha in 1873, (Leggett fell off a railroad trestle while blindfolded).^[8] Hazing at initiations was relatively easy to prohibit; the second issue of inordinate pledge process hazing is a matter still being addressed. Hazing is officially banned at the national and international levels of fraternities and sororities, is against many colleges' Greek Codes, and is illegal in most U.S. states.^[9][10] The North-American Interfraternity Conference also requires anti-hazing education for members, as do many Greek organizations and universities. Hazing can result in the revocation of the local chapter's charter, and expulsion of members from the national organization or university.

[edit] Exclusionary nature

Some colleges universities have banned fraternities and sororities with the justification that they are by their very structure set up to be elitist and exclusionary. The most famous, and oldest ban was at Princeton^[11], although Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s^[12] Fraternities have been banned in recent times from Williams College, and Amherst College,^[13] although they have returned this century to Amherst.^[14] In addition to this are accusations that fraternities are inherently sexist, racist and homophobic; such as the claims made at the University of Victoria, British Columbia, where fraternities are formally banned by the school administration.^[15]

[edit] North American fraternities and sororities in other regions

The North American fraternities and sororities are present almost exclusively in the United States and Canada, with a minority of organizations having chapters elsewhere, such as the Caribbean, and Africa, there have also been temporary accommodations. Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority a prominent historically African-American Sorority currently has chapters in has chapters in the Virgin Islands, Germany, and Bermuda. There was a brief chapter of Chi Phi at Edinburgh, Scotland during the American Civil War to accommodate Southern students studying abroad. And another for American servicemen who were still college students during WWII, but there has been no real export of the system to Europe. Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Incorporated, a historically black sorority founded in Washington, DC, USA, was the very first Greek-lettered organization ever to establish a chapter in Africa (1948). Today, Zeta Phi Beta has chapters in the USA, Africa, Europe, and the Caribbean. Likewise, Tau Kappa Epsilon has chapters in Canada and a chapter in Germany. Another example: Sigma Thêta Pi is present in Canada and France.

In Puerto Rico there are a number of social fraternities and sororities, a few having chapters in the United States such as Phi Sigma Alpha. Puerto Rico does have many chapters of professional, honorary, and service fraternities and sororities from the United States such as Sigma Lambda Beta International; the first Latino based fraternity to reach its shores.

[edit] History and development

[edit] Beginnings

The Phi Beta Kappa Society, founded on December 5 1776 at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, is generally recognized to be the first Greek-letter student society in North America. It was founded by several students who had decided that the general literary society on campus, P.D.A., was no longer a serious institution. The main developments associated with Phi Beta Kappa is the use of Greek-letter initials as a society name, and having branches or "chapters" of a society at different campuses following a pattern set by Masonic lodges.

However, Phi Beta Kappa was very different from a typical college fraternity of today in that the membership was generally restricted to upperclassmen, if not seniors, and faculty, (made members earlier in their careers) played an active role. The annual Phi Beta Kappa exercises at Yale were public literary exercises, with as many or more faculty members of the society than undergraduate.

As Phi Beta Kappa developed it came to be an influential association of faculty and select students on several college campuses, with membership becoming more of an honor and less of social selection. The increasing influence of the society came to seem by many as undemocratic and contrary to the free flow of intellectual ideas in American academia, and, under great pressure, the undergraduate members at Harvard revealed the secrets of Phi Beta Kappa in 1831. Thence, it grew into the most prominent and respected honorary society in academe.

The first organization recognizable as a modern college fraternity is the Chi Phi Fraternity founded December 24th, 1824 at what is now known as Princeton University. Less than a year later the Kappa Alpha Society was founded,not to be confused with the Kappa Alpha Order. Kappa Alpha Society was established at Union College in Schenectady, New York on November 26, 1825. Kappa Alpha's founders adopted many of Phi Beta Kappa's practices, but made their organization an exclusively student organization, and adopted a much more elaborate initiation. Its example encouraged the formation of two competitors on campus; the Sigma Phi Society formed in March 1827, followed by Delta Phi in November. These three have been called the Union Triad.

[edit] The Fraternity system becomes "national"

Sigma Phi became the first "national" fraternity when it opened a second chapter at Hamilton College in 1831. That encouraged the formation of Alpha Delta Phi in 1832 at Hamilton. Beta Theta Pi was founded at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio in August, 1839 in response to the chartering of the new chapter of Alpha Delta Phi. Alpha Sigma Phi was founded in December 1845 at Yale followed by Phi Delta Theta (1848) and Sigma Chi (1855)at Miami University. Along with Beta Theta Pi, these three fraternities have been called the Miami Triad. Also, around that time the Jefferson Duo was formed at Jefferson college in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, consisting of Phi Gamma Delta (1848) and Phi Kappa Psi (1852). Although this is a duo, it is recorded along with the other triads formed at the time.

The Mystical 7 was founded at Wesleyan University in 1837, and established the first chapters in the South, at Emory in 1841, and elsewhere. Sigma Alpha Epsilon was founded at the University of Alabama in 1856, and it is the only fraternity founded in the Antebellum South that still operates. Sigma Alpha Epsilon has initiated more men since its founding than any other fraternity with more than 290,000 initiated members.

Growth was then mainly stunted by the Civil War. Theta Xi, founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York on 29 April 1864, is the only fraternity to be established during the War. However, following the War, the system as a whole underwent strong growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both in the number of organizations founded and chapters of existing organizations established. This was aided, in part, by the reopening of schools and the return of veterans as students.

The Lexington Triad: A second triad came about in Virginia during the late 1800s. The Fraternal organizations Alpha Tau Omega and Kappa Alpha Order were both founded in 1865 in Lexington Virginia at the Virginia Military Institute. Three years later the "Legion of Honor" now known as Sigma Nu was established. Sigma Nu went public on January 1, 1869 which completed the Lexington Triad.

Alpha Phi Alpha,^[16] Phi Iota Alpha,^[17] Phi Sigma Nu, and Zeta Beta Tau were founded as the first fraternities for African-American, Latino-American, Native American, and Jewish students, respectively.

[edit] Sororities

The first society for women, the Adelphean Society (now Alpha Delta Pi) was established in 1851 at Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia. The Philomathean Society (later named Phi Mu)^[18] was founded at Wesleyan College a year later in 1852. The Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society did not take on their modern Greek names (Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu, respectively) until 1904 when they expanded beyond the Wesleyan campus. They are now often referred to as the Macon Magnolias. Many aspects of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu (such as the stars and hands on their badges and the mascot of the lion) are similar due to the fact that while at Wesleyan a founder of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu's Mary Ann DuPont (Lines) were roommates.

On April 28, 1867, I.C. Sorosis (later known by its original Greek motto Pi Beta Phi) was founded at Monmouth College, in Monmouth, Illinois. It is the first sorority founded on the model of the men's fraternity. A year later it established a second chapter at Iowa Wesleyan College.

In the mid-1800s women were beginning to be admitted to previously all-male universities, and there were many women who felt that it was in their best interest to band together. The first collegiate women formed women's fraternities in an effort to counteract the widespread opposition to their presence.^[19]

Kappa Alpha Theta was the first Greek letter women's fraternity founded in 1870 at DePauw University. The earliest organizations were founded as "women's fraternities" or "fraternities for women;" the term sorority was coined by professor Frank Smalley in 1874, in reference to the Greek organization being established at Syracuse University, Gamma Phi Beta. Alpha Phi was also established at Syracuse University, in 1872, and along with Alpha Gamma Delta, these three sororities make up the Syracuse Triad. The first organization to adopt the word sorority was Sigma Kappa, established on November 9, 1874 at Colby College in Waterville, Maine.

Delta Gamma was founded by three women at the Lewis School for Girls in Oxford, Mississippi in 1873 and is among the group of all women groups that is termed a "fraternity" because it predates the term sorority.Alpha Omicron Pi was founded on January 2, 1897 at Barnard College on the campus of Columbia University in New York. In 1913, at Hunter College, New York, Phi Sigma Sigma became the first non-denominational sorority (allowing any woman, regardless of race, religion, or economic background into membership).

A number of sororities have been founded at the graduate school level. In 1917, at New York University School of Law five female law students founded Delta Phi Epsilon Sorority.^[20] Currently active collegiate membership is only open to undergraduates.

Alpha Kappa Alpha, Lambda Theta Alpha, Alpha Pi Omega were founded as the first sororities by and for African-American, Latina-American, and Native American members respectively.

Phi Sigma Rho was established in 1984 at Purdue University and is a social sorority for women in science and engineering.

[edit] High school fraternities and sororities

High school fraternities and sororities, or secondary fraternities and sororities, are social fraternities for high school-aged children. There are a few active high school fraternities and sororities, including Alpha Omega Theta in New York, Zeta Mu Gamma in Puerto Rico, and DeMolay, Sigma Nu Xi and Sigma Alpha Rho (SAR) in the mainland United States. Although these are analogous societies, they are considered wholly different and unrelated societies.

[edit] Interfraternity organizations

Interfraternity organizations seek to provide members services such as public relations, leadership training, and methods of interfraternity discussions.

• Association of College Honor Societies — association of 65 honor societies.
• Concilio Interfraternitario Puertorriqueño de la Florida (CIPFI) — umbrella council for the Florida chapters of 5 Puerto Rican Greek Letter Fraternities
• Fraternity Leadership Association — association of fraternities who largely resigned from membership in the North-American Interfraternity Conference.
• National APIA Panhellenic Association (NAPA) — association of 10 Asian interest fraternities and sororities.
• National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO) — association of 23 Latino fraternities and sororities.
• National Multicultural Greek Council (NMGC) — association of 13 national and local multicultural Greek fraternities and sororities; local organizations found on a single campus are usually known as "Multicultural Councils" or "Unified Greek Councils."
• National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) — association of 9 historically African-American fraternities and sororities; local organizations found on a single campus are usually known as "Pan-Hellenic Councils."
• National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) — association of 26 international social women's fraternities and sororities; local organizations found on a single campus are usually known as "Panhellenic Councils."
• North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC) — association of 68 men's social fraternities; local organizations found on a single campus are usually known as "Interfraternity Councils."
• Professional Fraternity Association (PFA) — association of 36 professional fraternities and sororities
• United Council of Christian Fraternities & Sororities - a council for organizations based on Christianity

There are also organizations for specific members and membership roles in fraternities and sororities:

• Association of Fraternity Advisors — organization intended to support and assist advisors of fraternities and sororities.
• College Fraternity Editors Association — organization for professional fraternity and sorority communicators.
• Fraternity Executives Association — organization for executives of fraternities and sororities.

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Collegiate secret societies in North America
• Fraternal and service organizations
• History of North American college fraternities and sororities
• History of the North American fraternity and sorority system
• List of fraternity and sorority mottos
• List of fictional fraternities and sororities
• List of high school fraternities and sororities
• List of social fraternities and sororities
• Studentenverbindung

[edit] External links

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