Ireland

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Coordinates: 53°N 7°W / 53°N 07°W / 53; -07

Ireland

Native name: Éire / Ireland
True colour image of Ireland, captured by a NASA satellite on 4 January 2003, with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Irish Sea to the east.
Geography
Location	Northern Europe or Western Europe[1]
Area	84,421 km2 (32,595.1 sq mi)[2] (20th)
Coastline	3,700 km (2,300 mi)
Highest point	Carrauntoohil (1,041 m (3,415 ft))
Country
Ireland
Largest city	Dublin
United Kingdom
Constituent country	Northern Ireland
Largest city	Belfast
Demographics
Population	6,197,100[3] (as of 2008)
Density	73.4 /km2 (190 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups	Irish, Ulster Scots, Irish Travellers

Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɪrlənd/  ( listen), locally [ˈaɾlənd]; Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə]  ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann) is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island in the world.^[4] It lies to the north-west of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland is the island of Great Britain, separated from it by the Irish Sea. The Republic of Ireland covers five-sixths of the island. Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is estimated to be 6.2 million. Slightly less than 4.5 million are estimated to live in the Republic of Ireland and slightly less than 1.8 million are estimated to live in Northern Ireland.^[3] This is a significant increase from a modern historic low of 4.2 million in the 1960s but still much lower than the peak population of over 8 million in the early 19th century prior to the Great Famine.^[5]

Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has a lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 1600s. Today, it is the most deforested area in Europe. Twenty-six mammal species are native to Ireland, with some, such as the red fox, hedgehog and badger, being very common. Others, like the Irish hare, red deer and pine marten are less so.

A Norman invasion in the Middle Ages gave way to English domination by the 1600s. In the 1700s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Roman Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters. In 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. A a war of independence in the early 20th century led to the partition of the island, creating the Irish Free State, which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades. Northern Ireland remained a part of the United Kingdom and saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s. This subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973, both parts of Ireland joined the European Community. The Republic of Ireland experienced unprecedented economic growth from the mid-1990s until 2009. However, transport and other economic infrastructure on the island are still poor by the standards of highly-developed Western countries.

Irish culture has had a significant influence on culture world-wide, particularly in the fields of literature and, to a lesser degree, science and learning. A strong indigenous culture, expressed for example through native sports and the Irish language, exists alongside a regional culture, such as Rugby football and golf.

[edit] Geography

[edit] Political geography

A map of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland, showing the 26 counties of the Republic of Ireland (dark green) and the 6 counties of Northern Ireland (light green). Each of the counties on the map are a clickable link to the article on that county.

Ireland is occupied by two political entities:

• The Republic of Ireland (officially Ireland), a sovereign state that covers five sixths of the island. Its capital is Dublin.
• Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom that covers the remaining sixth. Its capital is Belfast.

Traditionally, Ireland is subdivided into four provinces: Connacht (west), Leinster (east), Munster (south), and Ulster (north). In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries, Ireland has thirty-two traditional counties.^[6] Twenty-six of the counties are in the Republic of Ireland and six counties are in Northern Ireland. The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster (which has nine counties in total). As such, Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland, although the two are not coterminous.

In the Republic of Ireland, counties form the basis of the system of local government. Counties Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Tipperary have been broken up into smaller administrative areas. However, they are still considered by the Ordnance Survey Ireland to be official counties. Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes, but their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in some other cultural, ceremonial or tourism contexts and in addresses.^[7]

City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter. Dublin, with 1 million residents in the Greater Dublin Area, is the largest city on the island. Other cities are:^[8][9]

• Belfast (pop. 276,459)
• Cork (pop. 190,400)
• Limerick (pop. 90,800)
• Derry (pop. 90,736)
• Galway (pop. 72,700)
• Lisburn (pop. 71,465)
• Waterford (pop. 49,200)
• Newry (pop. 27,433)
• Armagh (pop. 14,590)

Kilkenny (pop. 22,179), while strictly no longer a city, is entitled by law to described itself as such. Several towns have larger populations than some of these cities but are not recognised as cities because they lack historic charters or legal status.

[edit] All-island institutions

Despite the political partition, the island of Ireland continues to act as a single entity in a number of areas that transcend governmental agencies. The two jurisdictions share a transport, telecommunications and energy and water systems. With a few notable exceptions, this island is the main organisational unit for major religious, cultural and sporting organizations. The island fields a single international team in most sports, for example, and March 17 is celebrated throughout Ireland as the traditional Irish holiday of St. Patrick's Day. One notable exception to this is Association football (although both associations continued to field international teams under the name "Ireland" until the 1950s). An all-Ireland club football competition, the Setanta Cup, was created in 2005.

The 1998 Belfast Agreement provides for political co-operation between between the two jurisdictions. The North-South Ministerial Council, established under the agreement, is a institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive can formulate all-island policies in twelve "areas of co-operation" (such as agriculture, the environment and transport). Six of these policy areas have associated all-island "implementation bodies". For example, food safety is managed by the Food Safety Promotion Board and Tourism Ireland markets the island as a whole. Three major political parties, Sinn Féin, the Irish Green Party and, most recently, Fianna Fáil, are organised on an all-island basis. However, only the former two of these has ever contested an election and hold legislative seats in both jurisdictions.

Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies (the euro and pound sterling), an increasing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all-island basis. This has in part been facilitated by the two jurisdictions' shared membership of the European Union. Calls for the creation of an "all-island economy" have been made from members of the business community and policymakers so as to benefit from economies of scale and boost competitiveness.^[11] Support for such initiatives comes from the Irish government and nationalist parties in the Northern Ireland Assembly.^[12] One area in which the island already operates largely as a single market is electricity^[13] and there are plans for the creation of an all-island gas market.^[14]

[edit] Physical geography

Physical features of Ireland.

The area of Ireland is 84,421 km² (32,595 sq mi).^[2] A ring of coastal mountains surround low plains at the centre of the island. The highest of these is Carrauntoohil (Irish: Corrán Tuathail) in County Kerry, which rises to 1,038 m (3,406 ft) above sea level.^[15] The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster.^[16] Western areas are can be mountainous and rocky, with green panoramic vistas. The River Shannon, at 386 km (240 mi), the island's longest river, rises in County Cavan in the north west and flows 113 kilometres (70 mi) to Limerick city in the mid west.^[17]

The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall, earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle. Overall, Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes. The climate is typically insular and is temperate avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes.^[18] This is a result of the moderating moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the South-Western Atlantic.

Precipitation falls throughout the year, but is light overall, particularly in the east. The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms, especially in the late autumn and winter months. These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas, as well as sometimes snow and hail. The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island, with lightening occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas.^[19] Munster, in the south, records the least snow whereas Ulster, in the north, records the most.

Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter. Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing (0 °C/32 °F) at inland weather stations, compared to 10 days at coastal stations. Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves, most recently in 1995, 2003 and 2006. In 2009, temperatures fell below −7 °C (19.4 °F), which is unusually cold for Ireland, and caused up to ¹⁄₂ m (1.64 ft) of snow in mountain areas. In Dublin, there was 10 cm (3.9 in) of snow in places.

The warmest recorded air temperature was 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) (Kilkenny Castle, County Kilkenny, June 1887) and the lowest was −19.1 °C (−2.4 °F) (Markree Castle, County Sligo, January 1881).^[20] The greatest recorded annual rainfall was 3,964.9 mm (156.1 in) (Ballaghbeama Gap, County Kerry, 1960). The driest year was 1887, with only 356.6 mm (14.0 in) of rain recorded at Glasnevin. The longest period of absolute drought was in Limerick where there was no recorded rainfall over 38 days during April and May 1938.^[19]

Carrauntoohil, the highest peak in Ireland, located in Macgillycuddy's Reeks

The island consists of varied geological provinces. In the far west, around County Galway and County Donegal, is a medium to high grade metamorphic and igneous complex of Caledonide affinity, similar to the Scottish Highlands. Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to Navan is a province of Ordovician and Silurian rocks, with similarities to the Southern Uplands province of Scotland. Further south, along the County Wexford coastline, is an area of granite intrusives into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks, like that found in Wales.^[21][22] In the southwest, around Bantry Bay and the mountains of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, is an area of substantially deformed, but only lightly metamorphosed, Devonian-aged rocks.^[23] This partial ring of "hard rock" geology is covered by a blanket of Carboniferous limestone over the centre of the country, giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape. The west-coast district of the Burren around Lisdoonvarna has well developed karst features.^[24] Significant stratiform lead-zinc mineralization is found in the limestones around Silvermines and Tynagh.

Hydrocarbon exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the Kinsale Head gas field off Cork in the mid-1970s.^[25][26] More recently, in 1999, economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the Corrib Gas Field off the County Mayo coast. This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the "West of Shetland" step-out development from the North Sea hydrocarbon province. The Helvick oil field, estimated to contain over 28 million barrels (4,500,000 m³) of oil, is another recent discovery.^[27]

[edit] Places of interest

There are three World Heritage Sites on the island; these are the Brú na Boinne, Skellig Michael and the Giant's Causeway.^[28] A number of other places are on the tentative list, for example the Burren and Mount Stewart.^[29]

Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include Bunratty Castle, the Rock of Cashel, the Cliffs of Moher, Holy Cross Abbey and Blarney Castle.^[30] Historically important monastic sites include Glendalough and Clonmacnoise, which are maintained as national monuments.^[31] Dublin is the most heavily touristed region,^[30] and home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness Storehouse and Book of Kells.^[30] The west and south west, which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the Dingle peninsula in County Kerry and Connemara and the Aran Islands in County Galway, are also popular tourist destinations.^[30]

Stately homes, built during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries in Palladian, Neoclassical and neo-Gothic styles, such as, Castle Ward, Castletown House, Bantry House, are also of interest to tourists. Some have been converted into hotels, such as Ashford Castle, Castle Leslie and Dromoland Castle.

World Heritage Sites in Ireland

Giant's Causeway, County Antrim

Skellig Michael, County Kerry

Brú na Bóinne, County Meath

[edit] Flora and fauna

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is Ireland's largest wild mammal.

Because Ireland was isolated from continental Europe by rising sea levels after the ice age, it has less diverse animal and plant species than either Great Britain or mainland Europe. Only 26 land mammal species are native to Ireland. Some species, such as the red fox, hedgehog and badger, are very common, whereas others, like the Irish hare, red deer and pine marten are less so. Aquatic wildlife, such as species of turtle, shark, whale, and dolphin, are common off the coast. About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland. Many of these are migratory, including the Barn Swallow. Most of Ireland's bird species come from Iceland, Greenland and Africa.

Several different habitat types are found in Ireland, including farmland, open woodland, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, conifer plantations, peat bogs and a variety of coastal habitats. However, agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland, limiting natural habitat preserves,^[32] particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs. With no top predator in Ireland, populations of animals, such as semi-wild deer, that cannot be controlled by smaller predators, such as the fox, are controlled by annual culling.

Famously, there are no snakes in Ireland and only one reptile (the common lizard) is native to the island. Extinct species include the great Irish elk, the wolf and the great auk. Some previously extinct birds, such as the Golden Eagle, have recently been reintroduced after decades of extirpation.

Furze (Ulex europaeus)

Until medieval times, Ireland was heavily forested with oak, pine and birch. Forests today cover only about 9% (4,450 km² or one million acres)^[33] of Ireland, which makes it the most deforested area in Europe. Much of the land is now covered with pasture, and there are many species of wild-flower. Gorse (Ulex europaeus), a wild furze, is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions, especially in the western parts. It is home to hundreds of plant species, some of them unique to the island, and has been "invaded" by some grasses, such as Spartina anglica.^[34]

The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold-temperate variety. The total number of species is 574 and can be divided as follows:

• 264 Rhodophyta
• 152 Heterokontophyta
• 114 Chloropyta
• 31 Cyanophyta

Rarer species include:^[35]

• Itonoa marginifera (J.Ag.) (Masuda & Guiry)
• Schmitzia hiscockiana Maggs and Guiry
• Gelidiella calcicola Maggs & Guiry
• Gelidium maggsiae Rico & Guiry
• Halymenia latifolia P.Crouan & H.Crouan ex Kützing.

The island has been invaded by some algae, some of which are now well established. For example:^[36]

• Asparagopsis armara Harvey, which originated in Australia and was first recorded by M. De Valera in 1939
• Colpomenia peregrina Sauvageau, which is now locally abundant and first recorded in the 1930s
• Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensholt, now well established in a number of localities on the south, west, and north-east coasts
• Codium fragile ssp. fragile (formerly reported as ssp. tomentosum), now well established.

Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum has recently been established to be native, although for many years it was regarded as an alien species.

Because of its mild climate, many species, including sub-tropical species such as palm trees, are grown in Ireland. Phytogeographically, Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The island itself can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests.

[edit] The impact of agriculture

The long history of agricultural production, coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use, has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland.^[37][38] "Runoff" from contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes impact the natural fresh-water ecosystems.

A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and act as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island. Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy, which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments, are undergoing reforms.^[39] The Common Agricultural Policy, however, also subsidises some potentially destructive agricultural practices. Although recent reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements.^[39]

Forest covers about 10% of the country, with most designated for commercial production.^[32] Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species, which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates. Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island, in particular in the Killarney National Park. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.^[40]

[edit] History

History of Ireland
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[edit] Pre-history and medieval period

The Uragh Stone Circle, a neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park, County Kerry.

Most of Ireland was covered with ice until the end of the last ice age over 9,000 years ago. Sea-levels were lower and Ireland, as with its neighbour Britain, were a part of continental Europe rather than being islands. Mesolithic stone age inhabitants arrived some time after 8,000 BC and agriculture followed with the Neolithic Age around 4,500 to 4,000 BC when sheep, goats, cattle and cereals were imported from the Iberian peninsula. At the Céide Fields, preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present-day County Mayo, is an extensive field system, arguably the oldest in the world,^[41] dating from a not long after this period. Consisting of small divisions separated by dry-stone walls, the fields were farmed for several centuries between 3,500 and 3,000 BC. Wheat and barley were the principal crops.

The Iron Age in Ireland is traditionally associated with people known as the Celts. The Celts were commonly thought to have colonised Ireland in a series of invasions between the 8th and 1st centuries BC. The Gaels, the last wave of Celts, were said to have divided the island into five or more kingdoms after conquering it. However, academics now favour a view that emphasises the diffusion of culture from overseas as opposed to a military colonisation.^[42][43] Find, such as Clonycavan Man, given as evidence for this view.

The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco-Roman geographers. Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania (Lesser Britain), in contrast to the larger island, which he called Megale Brettania (Great Britain). In his later work, Geography, Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iwernia and to Great Britain as Albion. These "new" names were likely to have been the native names for the islands at the time. The earlier names, in contrast, were likely to have been coined before contact direct contact with local peoples were made.^[44] The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in it's Latinised form, Hibernia.^[45] or Scotia^[46] Ptolemy records sixteen tribes inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD.^[47] However the relationship between the Roman Empire and the tribes of ancient Ireland is unclear. The objective references that exist are from Roman writings whereas native accounts are confined to Irish poetry, myth. However, a number of finds of Roman coins have been found, for example at New Grange.^[48]

Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival tribes but, beginning in the 7th century AD, a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland. Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings stretching back thousands of years but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past.^[49] The High King was said to preside over the a patchwork of provincial kingdoms that together formed Ireland. Each of these kingdoms had their own kings but were at least nominally subject to the High King. The High King was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath, with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara. The concept only became a political reality in the Viking Age and even then not a consistent one.^[50][51] However, Ireland did have a unifying rule of law: the early written judicial system, the Brehon Laws, administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons.

The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431 AD Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish "already believing in Christ." The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick, Ireland's patron saint, arrived the following year. There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick but consensus that they both took place.^[52] and certainty that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion.^[53] Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology. In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland, Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe, where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire.^[53][54] The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today.

From the 9th century, waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns. These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep seeded in Ireland.

[edit] Norman and English invasions

The remains of the 11th-century Trim Castle in County Meath, the largest Norman castle in Europe.

On May 1st, 1169, an expedition of Cambro-Norman knights with an army of about six-hundred landed at Bannow Strand in present-day County Wexford. It was led by Richard de Clare, called Strongbow due to his prowess as an archer.^[55] The invasion, which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion, was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinster. In 1166, Mac Morrough had fled to France following a war involving Tiernan O'Rourke, king of Breifne, and sought the assistance of the King Henry II in recapturing his kingdom. In 1171, Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition. He wanted to re-exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control. He also wanted to promote the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church along Roman lines. This restructuring was already in progress at the ecclesiastical level since the Synod of Kells. Henry successfully re-imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro-Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord, an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor.

The invasion was legitimised by the provisions of Laudabiliter, a Papal bull, purportedly issued by Adrian IV in 1155 (co-incidentally, the only Englishman to have been elected Pope). There is some controversy over its authenticity - if real it granted King Henry II dominion over Ireland in the name of the papacy.^[56] In 1172, the new pope, Alexander III, further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome. Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution. This church levy, was called Peter's Pence, is still extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation. In turn, Henry accepted the title of Dominus Hiberniae (Lord of Ireland) which Henry granted to his younger son, John Lackland, in 1185. This defined the Irish state as the Lordship of Ireland, a feudal posession of the Papacy under the overlordship of the Lord of Ireland. When Henry's successor died unexpectedly in 1199, John inherited the crown of England and the Lord of Ireland and the King of England became one person.

Over the century that followed, Norman feudal law gradually replaced the native brehon law so that by the late 13th century the Norman-Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland. Normal settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies, manors, towns and the seeds of the modern-day county system. A version of Magna Carta (the Great Charter of Ireland), substituting Dublin for London and Irish Church for Church of England, was published in 1216 and the Parliment of Ireland was founded in 1297. However, from the mid-fourteenth century, after of the Black Death, Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline. The Norman rulers and the native Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised. In some parts, a hybrid Hiberno-Norman culture emerged. In response, the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367. These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English, follow English customs and abide by English law.^[57] However, by the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared and a renewed Irish culture and language, albeit with Norman influences, was dominant again.

English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale. English rule of law was reinforced and expanded, however, in the sixteenth century leading to the Tudor reconquest of Ireland. A near complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the seventeenth century following the Nine Years' War and the Flight of the Earls. This control was further consolidated during the seventeenth century. This century witnessed English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War. Irish losses during the Wars of the three Kingdoms (which, in Ireland, included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland) are estimated to include 20,000 battlefield casualties. 200,000 civilians died as a result of a combination of war related famine, displacement, guerilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war. A further 16,000 were tried and sent to slavery in the West Indies. Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre-war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict.^[58]

The religious struggles of the seventeenth century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland. Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament. After the passing of The Test Act 1673 and with the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites, Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred sitting as members in the Irish Parliament. Under the provisions of Poynings' Law of 1494, the Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Parliament. Under the emerging penal laws, recusant Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various and sundry civil rights even to the ownership of hereditary property. Additional regressive punitive legislation followed 1703, 1709 and 1728. This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists.^[59] The new Anglo-Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy.

[edit] Union with Great Britain

Half-hanging of suspected United Irishmen.

A weather-induced failure of the ubiquitous potato crop resulted in the famine in 1740. An estimated 400,000 people (about a quarter of the population) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease. The Irish government provided significant relief and contained the damage as much as possible. In the aftermath of the famine, an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms. The population soared in the latter part of this century. Dublin became the second city of the British Empire, and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built. In 1782, Poynings' Law was repealed giving Ireland virtual legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since the Norman invasion.

The British government still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland above the consent of the Irish parliament. In 1798, members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition (mainly Presbyterian) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen. It was staged with the aim of creating an independent Ireland as a state with a republican constitution. Despite assistance from France the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces. In 1800, the British and Irish Parliaments passed the Act of Union which, effective as of January 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities, having failed on the first attempt in 1799. According to contemporary documents and historical analysis, this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery, with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office, and a the awarding of peerages, places and honours to secure their affirmative votes.^[60] Thus, Ireland became part of an extended United Kingdom, ruled directly by the UK Parliament in London. A Viceregal administration was established and under the government appointed the Chief Secretary at Dublin Castle.

Emigrants Leave Ireland, an engraving by Henry Doyle depicting the emigration to The United States because of the Great Famine in Ireland.

The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people. Over a million more emigrated to escape it.^[61] By the end of the decade, half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland. Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid 20th century. Immediately prior to the famine, the population was recorded as 8.2 million by the 1841 census.^[62] The population has never returned to this level since.^[63] The population continue to fall until 1961 and it was not until the 2006 census that the last county of Ireland to (County Leitrim) to record a rise in population since 1841 did so.

The 19th and early 20th century saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism, primarily among the Roman Catholic population. Pre-eminent among these was Daniel O'Connell. He was elected as member of parliament for Ennis in a surprise result despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic. O'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign which was taken up by the Prime Minister, the Irish born soldier and statesman the Duke of Wellington. Steering the Act through the Westminster parliament, aided by future prime minister Robert Peel, Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the bill and proclaim it into law. George's father had opposed Prime Minister Pitt's plan to introduce such a bill following the Union in 1801 fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701.

A subsequent campaign led by O'Connell for the repeal of the Act of Union failed. Later in the century, Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union, or "Home Rule". Unionists, especially those located in the northern part of the island, were strongly opposed to Home Rule under which they felt they would be dominated by Catholic interests.^[64] After subsequent attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament, it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914. To prevent this from happening, the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Lord Carson. Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers, whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed. The Act was passed but with the "temporary" exclusion of the six counties of Ulster that would become Northern Ireland. However, before it could be implemented the Act was suspended for the duration of the Great War (World War I). The Irish Volunteers split into two groups, the majority, under John Redmond, took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war. A minority retained the name, the Irish Volunteers, and opposed Ireland's involvement in the war.^[65]

The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group and the British response, executing the leaders of the Rising one by one over seven weeks, changed the national mood towards Home Rule, and independence received overwhelming endorsement in the General Election of 1918. In 1919, a guerrilla war of independence followed the end of the Great War. In 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was concluded between the British Government and the leaders of the Irish Republic. Northern Ireland was to form a home rule state within the new Irish Free State but held an opt-out clause which it exercised immediately opted out as expected.^[66] Disagreements over the provisions of the treaty led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent civil war. The civil war ended in 1923 with the defeat of the anti-treaty forces but left deep, though often unspoken, divisions.

[edit] Partition

[edit] Independent Ireland

Annotated page from the Anglo-Irish Treaty that established the Irish Free State and independence for 26 out of 32 Irish counties.

During its first decade, the newly-formed Irish Free State state was governed by the victors of the civil war. In the 1930s, Fianna Fáil, the party of the opponents of the treaty, were elected into government. The party proposed, and the electorate accepted in a referendum in 1937, a new constitution that declared the state to be entirely sovereign. This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence. It was not, however, until 1949 that the state was declared, officially, a republic.

The state was a neutral during World War II but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies, especially in the potential defence of Northern Ireland. Despite being neutral, approximately 50,000^[67] volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war, four being awarded the Victoria Crosses.

Large-scale emigration marked the 1950s and 1980s but, beginning in 1987, the Irish economy improved and the 1990s saw the beginning of unprecedented economic growth. The phenomenon became known as the Celtic Tiger.^[68] By 2007, Ireland had become the fifth richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita.

[edit] Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland was created as a division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and until 1972, had self-government within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister. Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war. However, in decades that followed partition, there were sporadic episodes of inter-communal violence between nationalists and unionists. Northern Ireland, as part of the United Kingdom, was not neutral during the Second World War but without military conscription and Belfast suffered a bombing raid from in 1941.

Edward Carson signing the Solemn League and Covenant declaring opposition to Home Rule "using all means which may be found necessary".

The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines, meaning that the Government of Northern Ireland (elected by "first past the post" from 1929) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party. Over time, the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination against Catholics in housing and employment.^[69][70][71] In the late 1960s, nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests, which were often confronted by loyalist counter-protests.^[72] The government's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one-sided and heavy-handed. Law and order broke down as unrest and inter-communal violence increased.^[73] The Northern Ireland government was forced to request the British Army to aid the police, who were exhausted after several nights of serious rioting. In 1969, the paramilitary Provisional IRA, which favoured the creation of a united Ireland, was formed and began a campaign against what it called the "British occupation of the six counties". Other groups, on both the unionist side and the nationalist side, participated in violence and a period known as the Troubles began. Over 3,600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict.^[74] Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles, the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed "direct rule" from the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

There were several ultimately unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles political, such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973. In 1998, following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi-party talks, the Belfast Agreement was concluded and ratified by referendum across the entire island. The Agreement was to restore self-government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power-sharing between the two communities. Violence decreased greatly after the signing of the accord, and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament.^[75] The power-sharing assembly was suspended several times but was restored again in 2007. In that year, the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland and began withdrawing troops.

[edit] Economy

Ireland, both north and south, was in the main an underdeveloped economy and large-scale economic emigration troubled the island until the 1980s.^[76] These problems virtually disappeared over the course of the 1990s, which saw the beginning of unprecedented economic growth in the Republic of Ireland, in a phenomenon known as the "Celtic Tiger,"^[77] and peace being restored to Northern Ireland. In 2005, the Republic of Ireland was ranked the best place to live in the world, according to a "quality of life" assessment by The Economist magazine.^[78]

Both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland entered recession in 2008.^[79][80] and in 2009, the unemployment rate for the Republic of Ireland was 12.5%.^[81]

[edit] Transport

Aer Lingus Airbus A320 jet

There are five main international airports in Ireland: Dublin Airport, Belfast International Airport (Aldergrove), Cork Airport, Shannon Airport and Ireland West Airport (Knock). Dublin Airport is the busiest of these,^[82] carrying over 22 million passengers per year^[83] and a new terminal and runway are under construction.^[84] All provide services to Britain and continental Europe, while Belfast International, Dublin, Shannon and Ireland West (Knock) also offer transatlantic services. For several decades, Shannon was an important refuelling point for transatlantic routes.^[85] In recent years it has opened a pre-screening service allowing passengers to pass through US immigration services before departing from Ireland.

There are also several smaller regional airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, City of Derry Airport, Galway Airport, Kerry Airport (Farranfore), Sligo Airport (Strandhill), Waterford Airport and Donegal Airport (Carrickfinn). Scheduled services from these regional points are in the main limited to flights traveling to other parts of Ireland and to Great Britain.

Airlines based in Ireland include Aer Lingus (the former national airline of the Republic of Ireland), Ryanair, Aer Arann and CityJet.

"Samson and Goliath" at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland.

Ireland has ports in major ports in Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Rosslare, Derry and Waterford. Smaller ports exist in Arklow, Ballina, Drogheda, Dundalk, Dún Laoghaire, Foynes, Galway, Larne, Limerick, New Ross, Sligo, Warrenpoint and Wicklow. Ports in the Republic handle 3.6 million travellers crossing the Irish Sea between Ireland and Britain each year.^[86] The vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. Ports in Northern Ireland handle 10 megatons (11 million short tons) of goods trade with Britain annually, while ports in the Republic of Ireland handle 7.6 Mt (8.4 million short tons).

Ferry connections between Great Britain and Ireland via the Irish Sea include routes from Swansea to Cork, Fishguard and Pembroke to Rosslare, Holyhead to Dún Laoghaire, Stranraer to Belfast and Larne and Cairnryan to Larne. There is also a connection between Liverpool and Belfast via the Isle of Man. The world's largest car ferry, the MV Ulysses, is operated by Irish Ferries on the Dublin–Holyhead route. In addition, Rosslare and Cork run ferries to France.

Several (mainly hypothetical) plans to build an "Irish Sea tunnel" have been proposed. The first serious proposal was made in 1897, which was for a tunnel between Ireland and Scotland crossing the North Channel. Most recently, in 2004, the Institution of Engineers of Ireland proposed the "Tusker Tunnel" between the ports of Rosslare and Fishguard.^[87][88] In 1997 a British engineering firm, Symonds, proposed a rail tunnel from Dublin to Holyhead. Either of the two most recent proposals, at 80 km (50 mi), would be by far the longest tunnel in the world and would cost an estimated €20bn.

Railway routes, with major towns/station, mountains, ports and airports.

The railway network in Ireland was developed by various private companies during the 19th century, with some receiving government funding in the late 19th century. The network reached its greatest extent by 1920. A broad gauge of 1,600mm (5 ft 3in)^[89] was agreed as the standard the island, although there were also hundreds of kilometres of 914mm (3 ft) narrow gauge railways.^[89]

Long distance passenger trains in the Republic of Ireland are managed by Iarnród Éireann and connect most major towns and cities. In Northern Ireland, all rail services are provided by Northern Ireland Railways. Additionally, Ireland has one of the largest dedicated freight railways in Europe, operated by Bord na Móna totalling nearly 1,400 kilometres (870 mi).

In Dublin, two local rail networks provide transport in the city and its immediate vicinity. The Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) links the city centre with coastal suburbs. A new light rail system, the Luas, opened in 2004 and transports passengers to the central and western suburbs. Several more Luas lines are planned as well as an Dublin Metro. The DART is run by Iarnród Éireann and the Luas is run by Veolia under franchise from the Railway Procurement Agency. Under the Irish government's Transport 21 plan, the Cork to Midleton rail link was reopened in 2009. The re-opening of the Navan-Clonsilla rail link and the Western Rail Corridor are amongst future projects as part of the same plan.^[90]

Services in Northern Ireland are sparse in comparison to the rest of Ireland or Britain. A large railway network was severely curtailed in the 1950s and 1960s. Current services includes suburban routes to Larne, Newry and Bangor, as well as services to Derry. There is also a branch from Coleraine to Portrush.

Dublin Port Tunnel under construction.

Motorists in Ireland drive on the left. There is an extensive road network and a developing motorway network fanning out from Dublin and Belfast in particular. Historically, land owners developed most roads and later Turnpike Trusts collected tolls so that as early as 1800 Ireland had a 16,100 kilometres (10,000 mi) road network.^[91] In recent years, the Irish Government launched a new transport plan that is the largest investment project ever in Ireland's transport system: investing €34 billion from 2006 until 2015. Work on a number of road projects has already commenced and a number of objectives have been completed.^[92]

The first horsecar service in Ireland ran from Clonmel to Thurles and Limerick and was introduce in 1815 by Charles Bianconi.^[93] Today, the main bus companies are Bus Éireann in the Republic and Ulsterbus in Northern Ireland, both of which offer extensive passenger service in all parts of the island. Dublin Bus specifically serves the greater Dublin area and Metro operates services within the greater Belfast area.

Signposts and speed limits in the Republic of Ireland are shown in kilometres per hour, with speed limits having changed in 2005. Distance and speed limit signs in Northern Ireland use imperial units in common with the rest of the United Kingdom.

[edit] Power networks

For much of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate. Both networks were designed and constructed independently post partition. However, as a result of changes over recent years they are now connected with three interlinks and also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe. The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity (NIE) with enough power. In the Republic of Ireland, the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66%, one of the worst such rates in Western Europe. EirGrid is building a HVDC transmission line between Ireland and Britain with a capacity of 500 MW, about 10% of Ireland's peak demand.^[94]

Ringsend power station, Dublin.

Similar to electricity, the natural gas distribution network is also now all-island, with a pipeline linking Gormanston, County Meath, and Ballyclare, County Antrim.^[95] Most of Ireland's gas comes through interconnectors between Twynholm in Scotland and Ballylumford, County Antrim and Loughshinny, County Dublin. A decreasing supply is coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast^[96][97] and the Corrib Gas Field off the coast of County Mayo has yet to come on-line. The County Mayo field is facing some localized opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore.

There have been recent efforts in Ireland to use renewable energy such as wind power. Large wind farms are being constructed in coastal counties such as Donegal, Mayo and Antrim. What will be the world's largest offshore wind farm is currently being developed at the Arklow Bank Wind Park off the coast of County Wicklow. It is predicted that the Arklow wind farm will generate 10% of Ireland's power needs when it is complete. The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities, some of whom consider the wind turbines to be unsightly. The Republic of Ireland is also hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms. The ESB's Turlough Hill facility is the only power-storage facility in the state.^[98]

[edit] Demographics

The population of Ireland since 1603 showing the disastrous consequence of the Great Famine (1845-9). (Note: figures before 1841 are contemporary estimates.)

People have lived in Ireland for at least 9,000 years, although little is known about the palaeolithic and neolithic inhabitants of the island. Genetic research in 2004 suggests they came to the island by traveling over generations along the Atlantic coast from Spain.^[42] Earlier theories were that they migrated from central Europe. Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of dozens of different peoples that may or may not be mythological, for example the Cruithne, Attacotti, Conmaicne, Eóganachta, Érainn, and Soghain, to name but a few. Over the past 1000 years or so, Vikings, Normans, Scots and English have all added to the indigenous population.

Ireland's largest religious group is Christianity. The largest denomination is the Roman Catholicism representing over 73% for the island (and about 87%^[99] of the Republic of Ireland). Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations (about 53% of Northern Ireland).^[100] The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland. The Muslim community is growing in Ireland, mostly through increased immigration. The island has a small Jewish community. About 4% of the Republic's population describe themselves as of no religion.^[99] About 14% of the Northern Ireland population described themselves as so.^[100]

The population of Ireland rose rapidly since the 16th century until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine in the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to immigrate in its immediate wake. Over the following century a population haemorrhage reduced the population by over half at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three-fold. Emigration from Ireland over this period contributed to the populations of England, the United States, Canada and Australia where today a large Irish diaspora live. The pattern of immigration over this period particularly devastated the western and southern sea-boards. Prior to the Great Famine, the provinces of Connacht, Munster and Leinster were more or less evenly populated whereas Ulster was far less densely populated than the other three. Today, Ulster and Leinster, and in particular Dublin, have a far greater population density than Munster and Connacht.

Population density map of Ireland 2002 showing the heavily weighted eastern seaboard and the northern province of Ulster.

With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century, Ireland has become a place of immigration instead. Since joining the European Union expanded to included Poland in 2004, Polish people have made up the largest number immigrants (over 150,000)^[101] from Central Europe, followed by other immigrants from Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Latvia.^[102] The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large-scale immigration. The 2006 census recorded that 420,000 foreign nationals, or about 10% of the population, lived in the Republic of Ireland.^[100] Chinese and Nigerians, along with people from other African countries, have accounted for a large proportion of the non-European Union migrants to Ireland. Up to 50,000 eastern European migrant workers may have left Ireland towards the end of since 2008.^[103]

English has been spoken in Ireland since the Middle Ages and, since a language shifts during the nineteenth century, has replaced Irish as the first language vast majority of the population.^[104] Less than 10% of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish regularly outside of the education system^[105] and 38% of those over 15 years are classified as "Irish speakers". In Northern Ireland, English is the de facto official language but official recognition is afforded to both Irish and Ulster-Scots, which is also spoken by a number south of the border. In recent decades, with the increase in immigration, many more languages have been introduced, particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe.

[edit] Culture

[edit] Art

James Joyce, widely considered one of the most significant writers of the 20th century.

There are a number of languages used in Ireland. Irish is the main language to have originated from within the island. Since the later nineteenth century, English has become the predominant first language having been a spoken language in Ireland since the Middle Ages. A large minority claim some ability to use Irish today, although it is the first language only of a small percentage of the population. Under the constitution of the Republic of Ireland, both languages have official status with Irish being the national and first official language. In Northern Ireland, English is the dominant state language while Irish and Ulster Scots are recognised minority languages.

For an island with a relatively small population, Ireland has made a large contribution to world literature in all its branches, mainly in English.^[106] Poetry in Irish represents the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe, with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century. Jonathan Swift, still often called the foremost satirist in the English language, was wildly popular in his day for works such as Gulliver's Travels and A Modest Proposal. Oscar Wilde is known for most for his often quoted witticisms. In the 20th century, Ireland has produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as "Bloomsday".^[107] Modern Irish literature is still often connected with its rural heritage,^[108] through writers such as John McGahern and poets such as Seamus Heaney.

Illustrated page from Book of Kells

There is a thriving performance arts culture throughout the country, performing international as well as Irish plays. The national theatre is the Abbey Theatre founded in 1904. The national Irish-language theatre is An Taibhdhearc, established in 1928 in Galway.^[109][110] Playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned.^[111]

Irish graphic art and sculpture begins with Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange^[112] and is traced through Bronze age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period. During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, a strong indigenous tradition of painting emerged, including such figures as John Butler Yeats, William Orpen, Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy.

The Irish traditional music and dance is known worldwide, ^[113] It has made a recent surge in popularity not least through the phenomenon of Riverdance.^[114] In the middle years of the 20th century, as Irish society was modernising, traditional music fell out of favour, especially in urban areas.^[115] During the 1960s, inspired by the American folk music movement, there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as The Dubliners, The Chieftains, Emmet Spiceland, The Wolfe Tones, the Clancy Brothers, Sweeney's Men and individuals like Seán Ó Riada and Christy Moore.^[116]

U2 2005 Vertigo Tour performance in New York city

Before long, groups and musicians including Horslips, Van Morrison, and Thin Lizzy were incorporating elements of traditional music into a contemporary rock music. During the 1970s and 1980s, the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred, with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing. This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like U2, Enya, Flogging Molly, Moya Brennan, The Saw Doctors, Bell X1, Damien Rice, The Corrs, Aslan, Sinéad O'Connor, Clannad, The Cranberries, Rory Gallagher, Westlife, The Script, The Coronas, B*witched, BoyZone, Gilbert O'Sullivan, Black 47, Stiff Little Fingers, My Bloody Valentine, Ash, The Thrills, Something Happens, A House, Sharon Shannon, Damien Dempsey, Declan O' Rourke, The Frames and The Pogues. During the 1990s, a sub-genre of folk metal emerged in Ireland that fused heavy metal music with Irish and Celtic music. The pioneers of this sub-genre were Cruachan, Primordial, and Waylander. Some contemporary music groups stick closer to a "traditional" sound, including Altan, Téada, Danú, Dervish, Lúnasa, and Solas. Others incorporate multiple cultures in a fusion of styles, such as Afro Celt Sound System and Kíla.

Ireland has done well in the Eurovision Song Contest, being the most successful country in the competition with seven wins in the competition. Ireland won in 1970 with Dana, 1980 and 1987 with Johnny Logan, 1992 with Linda Martin, 1993 with Niamh Kavanagh, 1994 with Paul Harrington and Charlie McGettigan and in 1996 with Eimear Quinn.^[117]

[edit] Science

Robert Boyle, best known for the formulation of Boyle's Law.

The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena was considered one of the leading intellectuals of his early Middle Ages. Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, an Anglo-Irish explorer, was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration. He, along with his expedition, made the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole. Robert Boyle was an 17th century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, inventor and early gentleman scientist. He is largely regarded one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle's law.^[118] 19th century physicist, John Tyndall, discovered the Tyndall effect, which explains why the sky is blue. Father Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth College, is best known for his invention of the induction coil, transformer and the discovered an early method of galvanisation in the 19th century.

Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton, winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics. With Sir John Douglas Cockcroft, he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation.^[119] William Thomson, or Lord Kelvin, is the person whom the absolute temperature unit, the Kelvin, is named after. Sir Joseph Larmor, a physicist and mathematician, made innovations in the understanding of electricity, dynamics, thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter. His most influential work was Aether and Matter, a book on theoretical physics published in 1900.^[120] George Johnstone Stoney introduced the term electron in 1891. John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell's Theorem and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell-Jackiw-Adler anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize.^[118] Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton, famous for the discoverer of quaternions. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth was influential in the development of neo-classical economics, including the Edgeworth box. John B. Cosgrave was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000-digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite Fermat number in 2003. John Lighton Synge made progress in different fields of science, including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity. He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students.

Ireland as eight universities and numerous Institutes of Technologies as well as the The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, which was established in 1940 with physicist Erwin Schrödinger as directory.^[121]

[edit] Sports

See also: List of Irish sports people

Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement, and represents 34% of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%.^[122] and the All-Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in Ireland's sporting calendar.^[123] Swimming, golf, aerobics, soccer, cycling, Gaelic football and billiards/snooker are the sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation^[124]. Soccer is the most popular sport involving national teams.

Many other sports are also played and followed, including basketball, boxing, cricket, fishing, golf, greyhound racing, handball, hockey, horse racing, motor sport, show jumping and tennis.

[edit] Field sports

Tyrone v Kerry at the All-Ireland Football Final in 2005.

Hurling and Gaelic football, handball and rounders make up the national sports of Ireland, collectively known as Gaelic games. Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), with the exception of ladies' Gaelic football and camogie (women's variant of hurling), which are governed by separate organisations. The headquarters of the GAA (and the main stadium) is located at the 82,500^[125] capacity Croke Park in north Dublin. Major GAA games are played there, including the semi-finals and finals of the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium, international rugby and soccer are being played there.^[126] All GAA players, even at the highest level, are amateurs, receiving no wages, although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport-related income from commercial sponsorship.

The Irish Football Association (IFA) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island. The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s, with Cliftonville F.C. in Belfast being Ireland's oldest club. It was most popular, especially in its first decades, around Belfast and in Ulster. However, some clubs based outside Belfast felt that the IFA largely favoured Ulster-based, Protestant clubs in such matters as selection for the national team. In 1921, following an incident in which, despite an earlier promise, the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi-final replay from Dublin to Belfast^[127] Dublin-based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State. Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland (FAI). Despite being initially blacklisted by the Home Nations' associations, the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 (against Italy). However, both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland, with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams. Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland. In 1950, FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and, in 1953, directed that the FAI's team be known only as "Republic of Ireland" and that the IFA's team be known as "Northern Ireland" (with certain exceptions). Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1982 and 1986. The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 (reaching the quarter-finals), 1994, 2002 and the European Championships in 1988. There is significant Irish interest in the English and, to a lesser extent, Scottish soccer leagues.

Paul O'Connell reaching for the ball during a line out against Argentina in 2007.

Unlike soccer, Ireland continues to field a single national rugby team and a single association, the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU), governs the sport across the island. The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup, making the quarter-finals in four of them. Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups (including a quarter-final). There are four professional Irish teams, all four play in the Magners League and three compete for the Heineken Cup. Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994. During that time, Ulster (1999^[128]), Munster (2006^[129] and 2008^[130]) and Leinster (2009^[131]) have won the Heineken Cup. In addition to this, the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations tournament against the other European elite sides. This success, including Triple Crowns (victories over the home nations of Great Britain) in 2006 and 2007, culminated with a clean sweep of victories, known as a grand slam, in 2009.^[132]

The Ireland cricket team was among the associate nations that qualified for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. It defeated Pakistan and finished second in its pool, earning a place in the Super 8 stage of the competition. The team also competed in the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 after jointly winning the qualifiers, where they also made the Super 8 stage.

The Irish rugby league team is made up predominantly of players based in England with Irish-family connections, with others drawn from the local competition and Australia. Ireland reached the quarter-finals of the 2000 Rugby League World Cup.

[edit] Other sports

Greyhound racing and horse racing are both popular in Ireland. Greyhound stadiums are well-attended and there are frequent horse race meetings. The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs. The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare.

Irish athletics has seen some development in recent times, with Sonia O'Sullivan winning two notable medals at 5,000 metres; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Gillian O'Sullivan won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships, while sprint hurdler Derval O'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow. Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk in the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009.

Boxing is governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association. In 1992, Michael Carruth won a gold medal for boxing in the Barcelona Olympic Games and in 2008 Kenny Egan won a silver medal for boxing in the Olympic Games in Beijing.

Golf is very popular and golf tourism is a major industry. The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare.^[133] Pádraig Harrington became the first Irishman since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at Carnoustie in July 2007.^[134] He successfully defended his title in July 2008^[135] before going on to win the PGA Championship in August.^[136] Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland.

The west coast of Ireland, Lahinch and Donegal Bay in particular, have popular surfing beaches, being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west/south-west Atlantic winds, creating good surf, especially in winter. In recent years, Bundoran has hosted European championship surfing. Scuba diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life, particularly along the western seaboard. There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland, with some of the best wreck dives being in Malin Head and off the County Cork coast. With thousands of lakes, over 14,000 kilometres (8,700 mi) of fish bearing rivers and over 3,700 kilometres (2,300 mi) of coastline, Ireland is a popular angling destination. The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling. While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers, salmon fishing in particular received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon driftnet fishery. Coarse fishing continues to increase its profile. Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted, and in recent times the range of sea angling species has increased.^[137]

[edit] See also

Ireland portal

• Irish states since 1171
• List of divided islands
• List of Ireland-related topics
• List of islands of Ireland
• Tourist destinations in Ireland

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

[edit] External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Ireland

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ireland

• Republic of Ireland travel guide from Wikitravel
• Northern Ireland travel guide from Wikitravel
• Government of Ireland
• Northern Ireland Executive

Articles Related to Ireland v • d • e Counties of Ireland Connacht Galway (Galway City) · Leitrim · Mayo · Roscommon · Sligo Munster Clare · Cork (Cork City) · Kerry · Limerick (Limerick City) · Tipperary (North Tipperary • South Tipperary) · Waterford (Waterford City) Leinster Carlow · Dublin (Dublin City • Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown • Fingal • South Dublin) · Kildare · Kilkenny · Laois · Longford · Louth · Meath · Offaly · Westmeath · Wexford · Wicklow Ulster Cavan · Donegal · Monaghan · Antrim · Armagh · Down · Fermanagh · Derry · Tyrone Italics denote non-administrative counties. Parentheses () denote eponymous cities or non-traditional counties. v • d • e Celtic nations and their cultures Nations Celtic League definition Brittany · Cornwall · Ireland · Isle of Man · Scotland · Wales Other claimants Asturias · Galicia Languages Brythonic: Breton · Cornish · Welsh Goidelic: Irish · Manx · Scottish Gaelic Mixed: Shelta · Bungee Culture Brittany · Cornwall · Ireland · Isle of Man · Scotland · Wales · Celtic art Music Brittany · Cornwall · Ireland · Isle of Man · Scotland · Wales Sport Cammag · Cornish hurling · Cornish wrestling · Curling · Gaelic football · Gaelic handball · Golf · Gouren · Rounders · Highland games · Hurling · Road bowls · Shinty Peoples Breton · Cornish · Irish · Irish Traveller · Manx · Scottish · Ulster-Scots · Welsh v • d • e Britain and Ireland Terminology · Naming dispute · Islands of the North Atlantic (IONA) Politics Sovereign states and constituent countries Ireland · United Kingdom (England · Northern Ireland · Scotland · Wales) British Crown dependencies Guernsey · Jersey · Isle of Man Political cooperation British–Irish Council · British–Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body · Common Travel Area · North/South Ministerial Council Geography Island groups Channel Islands · Islands of the Clyde · Great Britain · Hebrides (Inner · Outer) · Ireland · Isle of Man · Isles of Scilly · Northern Isles (Orkney · Shetland) Lists of islands of Ireland · Isle of Man · United Kingdom (England · Scotland · Wales) History Current states and dependencies Ireland · United Kingdom (England · Northern Ireland · Scotland · Wales) Guernsey · Jersey · Isle of Man Former states Kingdom of England · Kingdom of Scotland · Kingdom of Ireland · Principality of Wales · Kingdom of Great Britain · United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland · Irish Free State Society Modern languages Auregnais · BSL · Cornish · English · French · Guernésiais · Irish · ISL · Jèrriais · Manx · NISL · Scots · Scottish Gaelic · Sercquiais · Shelta · Welsh People British · Cornish · English · English Gypsies · Irish · Irish Traveller · Kale · Manx · Scottish · Ulster-Scots · Welsh v • d • e Ireland topics Republic of Ireland (topics)  · Northern Ireland (topics)   History Timeline Prehistory · Protohistory · Early history Gaelic Ireland / Lordship of Ireland (800–1166 · 1166–1536) Kingdom of Ireland (1536–1691 · 1691–1801) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (since 1922) Irish Free State (1922–1937) Ireland (since 1922) Events Battle of Tara/Battle of Glenmama/Battle of Clontarf · Norman invasion · Bruce campaign · Black Death · Tudor reconquest · Desmond Rebellions · Spanish Armada · Tyrone's Rebellion · Flight of the Earls · Plantation of Ulster · 1641 Rebellion and Confederate War · Cromwellian reconquest and Settlement of 1652 · Williamite War · Penal Laws · First Great Famine · 1798 Rebellion · Act of Union 1800 · Tithe War · Second Great Famine · Land War · Fenian Rising · Dublin Lockout · Home Rule Crisis · Easter Rising · War of Independence · Anglo-Irish Treaty · Civil War · The Emergency · IRA Northern Campaign · IRA Border Campaign · The Troubles Other topics List of Irish battles · List of Irish tribes · List of High Kings · Gaelic clothing and fashion   Geography Natural Climate · Islands · Loughs · Rivers (List) · Mountains · Extreme points · Fauna · National Parks Human Demographics of ROI / Demographics of NI · Provinces · Counties · Cities · Towns · Ports · Tourist destinations · ROI–UK border · Transport · Architecture · Notable buildings · Tallest buildings and structures   Culture People Gaels (and the Gaeltachtaí) · Ulster Scots · Anglo-Irish · Hiberno-Norman · Travellers · Irish diaspora · List of Irish people Languages Irish · Ulster Scots · Shelta · Hiberno-English · Mid Ulster English Literature Poetry · Fiction · Theatre · Gaeilge literature · Irish annals · Irish triads Mythology Mythological Cycle · Ulster Cycle · Fenian Cycle · Echtrai · Immrama · Tuatha Dé Danann · Aos Sí Music Folk music · Folk music sessions · Céilí · Irish instruments · Traditional singing · Ballads · Rock music Dance Sean-nós dance · Stepdance · Set dance · Jig Cuisine Irish stew · Barmbrack · Boxty · Champ · Coddle · Colcannon · Drisheen · Soda bread · Ulster fry Sport Football · Gaelic football · Hurling · Camogie · Gaelic handball · Road bowling · Rounders · Gaelic Athletic Association · Rugby union Symbols Flags · Flags issue · National coat of arms · County coats of arms · Shamrock · Cláirseach · Red Hand · Irish Wolfhound · Irish Elk Other Irish calendar · Irish names · Irish placenames / Irish placenames outside Ireland   Politics Ideologies Irish nationalism · Irish republicanism · Unionism · Ulster loyalism Republic of Ireland Government · Parliament (Lower House · Upper House · President) · Constitution · Local government · Economy (Celtic Tiger) · Education · Foreign relations Northern Ireland Peace process · Government · Assembly (D'Hondt method) · Local government · Economy · Education Portal v • d • e  National personifications Armenia   Mother Armenia Australia   Boxing kangaroo Brazil   Efígie da República Cambodia   Preah Thaong and Neang Neak Canada   Johnny Canuck Finland   Finnish Maiden (Suomi neito) France   Jacobin · Marianne Georgia   Kartlis Deda Germany   Deutscher Michel · Germania Greece   Athena, "Greece" of Delacroix Iceland   Lady of the mountain (Fjallkonan) India   Bharat Mata Indonesia   Ibu Pertiwi Ireland   Erin · Ériu · Hibernia · Kathleen Ni Houlihan Israel   Srulik Italy   Italia Turrita Japan   Amaterasu Omikami Malaysia   Harimau Malaya · Ibu Pertiwi (East Malaysia) Netherlands   de Nederlandse Maagd` (Netherlands Maiden) Norway   Ola Nordmann Philippines   Juan de la Cruz Poland   Polonia Portugal   Efígie da República · Zé Povinho Russia   Mother Russia Sweden   Mother Svea Switzerland   Helvetia United Kingdom   Britannia · Lion and Unicorn John Bull 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