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Dr. Jon Cole

School of Psychology
Eleanor Rathbone Building,
Bedford Street South,
Liverpool,
L69 7ZA

Telephone:   +44 (0) 151 794 2175
Fax:   +44 (0) 151 794 2945
Email: j.c.cole@liverpool.ac.uk

I have been employed in the School of Psychology since January 1998 and am currently a Reader. Prior to coming to Liverpool I had postdoctoral positions at Tufts University in Boston (1994-5)  and Durham University (1995-8). I received my PhD from Leeds University in 1994. During my career I have received several awards from the British Association for Psychopharmacology, including the BAP/Cerebrus Young Psychopharmacologist of the year in 1999. My current research interests are;

Behavioural economics: Behavioural economics applies consumer demand theory to the study of human behaviour. Within this conceptual framework, my colleagues and I are investigating the cost/benefit decision making of polysubstance misusers when faced with the opportunity to purchase controlled drugs, including alcohol and tobacco. The market in controlled drugs plays an important role in the choices made by polysubstance misusers. Some of these choices include the illegal distribution of controlled drugs for profit and the reduction in spending on other aspects of their lives to fund substance use. 

Impulsivity: Impulsivity is a poorly defined term, yet it is obvious that impulsive decision making is heavily implicated in the development of a variety of (potentially) problematic behaviours, such as controlled drug use. Whilst impulsivity is a central concept in a number of psychiatric disorders it is a poorly defined construct and its multidimensional nature makes it difficult to investigate. The main basis of our work is derived from the behavioural economic principle of hyperbolic temporal discounting (i.e. delay discounting), where a small immediate reward is preferred over a larger delayed reward. In this context time perception is as important as reward for the cost/benefit analyses involved in impulsive decision making. 

Ecstasy: Despite dire warnings of the long-term impact of ecstasy use, the evidence base for long-term clinically-relevant adverse effects remains inconsistent and highly controversial. Alternative causal mechanisms exist for the observed problems in polysubstance misusers and these need to be investigated. In addition, the widespread and often sensationalist media coverage of ecstasy research is potentially contributing to the self-reported adverse effects of ecstasy use and making it more difficult to determine if clinically-relevant problems exist.  

Risk Perception:  In order to reduce the harm from misusing substances it is necessary to understand how young people perceive the risks associated with their behaviour. It is commonly believed that substance misusers are unaware of the risks associated with controlled drugs because if they were then they wouldn’t use them. Unfortunately, young people have a very good understanding of the risks associated with controlled drugs and some of them choose to use them despite knowing the risks that they take. Understanding how and why these cost/benefit decisions are made is therefore central to interventions designed to reduce the harm from the misuse of controlled drugs.  

Critical incident decision making: Critical incidents are defined as sudden events that threaten an individual’s well being and which are perceived in such a way that the individual’s coping strategies are overwhelmed. The most stressful critical incidents involve life threatening events and in the short term most individuals exposed to traumatic events will cope effectively but around 30% will manifest acute stress reactions either during or immediately after the event. In this context, my colleagues and I are investigating how stress, impulsivity, and time perception impacts ‘high stakes’ decision making under time pressure.  

Tactical decision making in the Police use of firearms: Research into the police use of force has indicated that even unarmed confrontations present a serious risk of injury to both the police officer and the suspect. The emphasis in the existing literature has been on the outcome of armed confrontations, that is the (no) shoot decision. However, the antecedents of the (no) shoot decision are also important in determining the outcome of armed confrontations.

Strategic decision making in the terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction:  Recent history has shown that some terrorist organisations are in possession of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, yet their deployment is rare. It is clear that these organisations are making cost/benefit decisions concerning the use of WMD, with some deploying WMD (e.g. Aum Shinrikyo) and others demonstrating that they are in possession of WMD but not deploying them (e.g. Chechen separatists).

Selected publications

  1. Goudie AJ, Sumnall HR, Field M, Clayton H, and Cole JC (2006) The effects of price and perceived quality on the behavioural economics of alcohol, amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, and ecstasy purchases. Drug and Alcohol Dependence submitted

  2. Goudie AJ, Cooper GD, Cole JC and Sumnall HR (2006) Cyproheptadine resembles Clozapine in vivo following both acute and chronic administration in rats. Journal of Psychopharmacology in press

  3. Beynon CM, Sumnall HR, McVeigh J, Cole JC, and Bellis MA (2006) The ability of two commercially available quick test kits to detect Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault drugs in beverages. Addiction in press 

  4. Sumnall HR, Cole JC, and Jerome L (2006) The varieties of ecstatic experience. Journal of Psychopharmacology in press

  5. Cole JC, Michailidou K, Jerome L, and Sumnall HR (2006) The effects of stereotype threat on cognitive function in ecstasy users. Journal of Psychopharmacology in press 

  6. Field M, Santarcangelo M, Sumnall H, Goudie A, and Cole J (2006) Delay discounting and the behavioural economics of cigarette purchases in smokers: the effects of nicotine deprivation. Psychopharmacology 186:255-263

  7. Croft A, Brooks SP, Cole J and Little HJ (2005) Social defeat increases alcohol consumption of C57 strain mice; effect prevented by a CCKB antagonist. Psychopharmacology 183:163-170

  8. Sumnall HR and Cole JC (2005) Self-reported depressive symptomatology in community samples of polysubstance misusers who report ecstasy use: a meta analysis. Journal of Psychopharmacology 19:89-97

  9. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, Smith GW, and Rostami-Hodjegan A (2005) Preliminary evidence of the cardiovascular effects of polysubstance misuse in nightclubs. Journal of Psychopharmacology 19:63-66

  10. Sumnall HR, Bellis MA, Cole JC and McVeigh J (2005) Crack-cocaine injection in specialist drug treatment agency clients in Merseyside – a preliminary investigation.  Drugs: Education, Prevention, and Policy 12:213-221

  11. Wagstaff, G.F. and Cole, J. (2005). Levels of explanation and the concept of a hypnotic state. Contemporary Hypnosis 22:14-17

  12. Goudie AJ and Cole JC (2004) Hallucinations and antipsychotics: The role of the 5-HT2A receptor. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27:795-796

  13. Sumnall HR, Tyler E, Wagstaff GF and Cole JC (2004) A behavioural economic analysis of alcohol, amphetamine, cocaine, and ecstasy purchases by polysubstance misusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 76:93-99

  14. Sumnall HR, O’Shea E, Marsden CA, and Cole JC (2004) The effects of MDMA pre-treatment on the behavioural effects of other drugs of abuse in the rat elevated plus-maze test. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 77:805-814

  15. Goudie AJ, Smith JA and Cole JC (2004) Stimulus properties of the “atypical” antipsychotic zotepine in rats: Comparisons with clozapine and quetiapine.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 77:163-173

  16. Sumnall HR, Wagstaff GF and Cole JC (2004) Self-reported psychopathology in polydrug users.  Journal of Psychopharmacology 18:63-69

  17. Wagstaff GF, Brunas-Wagstaff J, Cole J and Wheatcroft J (2004) New directions in forensic hypnosis: Facilitating memory with focused meditation. Contemporary Hypnosis 21:14-28

  18. Wagstaff GF, Brunas-Wagstaff J, Knapton L, Winterbottom J, Crean, V, Cole J and  Wheatcroft J (2004) Facilitating memory with hypnosis, focused meditation and eye closure. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis in press

  19. Cole JC and Sumnall HR (2003) The preclinical behavioural pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 27: 199-217

  20. Cole JC, Smith R, Halford JCG and Wagstaff GF (2003) A preliminary investigation into the relationship between anabolic-androgenic steroid use and the symptoms of reverse anorexia in both current and ex-users. Psychopharmacology 166:424-429

  21. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, O’Shea E and Marsden CA (2003) Effects of MDMA exposure on the conditioned place preference produced by other drugs of abuse. Psychopharmacology 166: 383-390

  22. Wagstaff GF, MacVeigh J, Boston R, Scott L, Brunas-Wagstaff J and Cole J (2003). Do laboratory findings on eyewitness testimony generalize to the real world? An archival analysis of the influence of violence, weapon presence and age on eyewitness accuracy. Journal of Psychology 13:17-28

  23. Cole JC and Sumnall HR (2003) Altered States: the clinical effects of ‘Ecstasy’. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 98: 35-58 

  24. Wagstaff GF, Toner S, and Cole J (2002) Is response expectancy sufficient to account for hypnotic negative hallucinations ?  Contemporary Hypnosis 19:133-158

  25. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, and Grob C (2002) Sorted: Ecstasy facts and fiction Psychologist 15:464-474

  26. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, and Wagstaff GF (2002) Methodological problems with ecstasy and the SCL-90. Psychopharmacology 162:215-217      The authors’ reply is here.

  27. Cole JC, Sumnall HR, and Wagstaff GF (2002) What is a dose of ecstasy ? Journal of Psychopharmacology 16:187-189

  28. Cole JC and Sumnall HR (2002) The BDI of the Beholder. Journal of Psychopharmacology 16:91

  29. Cole JC, Bailey M, Sumnall HR, Wagstaff GF, and King LA (2002) The content of ecstasy tablets: implications for the study of their long-term effects.  Addiction 97:1531-1536

  30. Cole JC (2002) Ecstasy tablet testing: a case of guilty until proven innocent? Addiction 97:231

  31. Cole JC (2002) Perhaps results of testing tablets should be made public? British Medical Journal 324:299 

  32. Cho K, Ennaceur A, Cole JC, and Shuh CK (2000) Chronic jet-lag produces cognitive deficits.  Journal of Neuroscience RC66(1-5)

  33. Cole JC, Littleton JM and Little HJ (2000) Acamprosate, but not naltrexone, inhibits conditioned abstinence behaviour associated with repeated ethanol administration and exposure to a plus maze.  Psychopharmacology 147:403-411

  34. Little HJ, Butterworth AR, O’Callaghan, MJ, Cole J, Watson WP (1999) C57 mice with low alcohol preference; preference increased by saline injection.  Psychopharmacology 147:182-189

  35. Cole JC, Littleton JM and Little HJ (1999) Effects of repeated ethanol administration in the plus-maze; a simple model for the conditioned abstinence behaviour.  Psychopharmacology 142:270-279

  36. Tornatzky W, Cole JC and Miczek KA (1998) Recurrent aggressive episodes entrain ultradian heart rate and temperature rhythms.  Physiology and Behavior 63:845-853

  37. Rodgers RJ, Johnson NJT, Cole JC, Dewar CV, Kidd GR and Kimpson PH (1996) Plus-maze retest profile: importance of initial stages of trial 1 and response to post-trial cholinergic receptor blockade.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 54:41-50

  38. Cole JC, Burroughs GJ, Laverty CR, Sheriff NC, Sparham EA and Rodgers RJ (1995) Anxiolytic-like effects of yohimbine in the murine plus-maze: strain independence and evidence against alpha2-adrenoceptor mediation.  Psychopharmacology 118:425-436

  39. Cole JC and Rodgers RJ (1995)  Ethological comparison of the effects of diazepam and acute/chronic imipramine on the behaviour of mice in the elevated plus-maze.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 52:473-478

  40. Rodgers RJ and Cole JC (1995) Effects of scopolamine and its quaternary analogue in the murine elevated plus-maze test of anxiety. Behavioural Pharmacology 6:283-289

  41. Rodgers RJ, Cole JC, Aboualfa K and Stephenson LH (1995) Ethopharmacological analysis of the effects of putative ‘anxiogenic’ agents in the mouse elevated plus-maze.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 52:805-813

  42. Rodgers RJ, Cole JC and Tredwell JM (1995) Profile of action of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, ondansetron and WAY 100289, in the elevated plus-maze test of anxiety in mice. Psychopharmacology 117:306-313

  43. Rodgers RJ, Johnson NJT, Norton SJ and Cole JC (1995) Effects of Ritanserin and 1-(2,5-dimethyoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane (DOI) in the murine elevated plus-maze test of anxiety: an ethopharmacological study.  Journal of Psychopharmacology 9:38-42

  44. Cole JC and Rodgers RJ (1994) An ethological evaluation of the effects of acute and chronic buspirone treatment in the murine elevated plus-maze test: comparison with haloperidol. Psychopharmacology 114:288-296

  45. Rodgers RJ and Cole JC (1994) Anxioselective effect of (s)-WAY 100135, a putative ‘silent’ 5-HT1A receptor antagonist in the murine elevated plus-maze test. European Journal of Pharmacology 261:321-325

  46. Rodgers RJ, Cole JC and Davies A (1994) Anti-anxiety and behavioural suppressant actions of the novel 5-HT1A receptor agonist, flesinoxan. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior  48:959-963     

  47. Rodgers RJ, Cole JC and Harrison-Phillips DJ (1994) ‘Cohort Removal’ induces hyperthermia but fails to influence plus-maze behaviour in male mice.  Physiology and Behavior 55:189-192

  48. Rodgers RJ, Nikulina EM and Cole JC (1994) Effects of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor ligands on the behaviour of male mice in the elevated plus-maze test of anxiety. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior  49:985-995

  49. Rodgers RJ and Cole JC (1994) The elevated plus-maze: pharmacology, methodology & ethology. In: Ethology and Psychopharmacology,  Editors: Cooper SJ and Hendrie CA. Wiley, Chichester, 1994,  pp 9-44.

  50. Cole JC and Rodgers RJ (1993) An ethological analysis of the effects of chlordiazepoxide and bretazenil (Ro 16-6028) in the murine elevated plus-maze.  Behavioural Pharmacology 4:573-580

  51. Rodgers RJ and Cole JC (1993) Influence of social isolation, gender, strain and prior novelty on plus-maze behaviour in mice.  Physiology and Behavior 54:729-736

  52. Rodgers RJ and Cole JC (1992) Anxiety enhancement in the elevated plus-maze by immediate prior exposure to social stressors.  Physiology and Behavior 53:383-388

  53. Rodgers RJ, Cole JC, Cobain MR, Daly P, Doran PJ, Eells JR and Wallis P (1992) Anxiogenic-like effects of fluprazine and eltoprazine in the mouse elevated plus-maze: profile comparisons with 8-OH-DPAT, CGS 12066B, TFMPP and mCPP.  Behavioural Pharmacology 3:621-634