Ignorance of Africa is not a new phenomenon. A general lack of knowledge and misunderstanding of the continent of Africa characterized European thought for centuries. During the 1960’s and 1970’s there was a growing interest in studying Africa at American universities and secondary schools. However, the image was still based on the exotic -- the savage and romantic. The popular image now is one of famine, natural and societal disasters, and political collapse. Environmental, political, and economic crisis have shattered Africa’s promise for development. This chapter identifies and discusses similarities to provide a framework for understanding the problems facing contemporary African development.

Its vast size and diversity are reflected in the regional distribution of human and natural resources, in the nature of urban and rural environments and the contrasting lifestyles of a small, but growing elite. Languages continue to be a barrier and are grouped into four main linguistic families -- however, there are thousands of different dialects, each very distinct from the other. Afroasiatic groups are along the northern section (Mauritania on the west to Somalia on the east). Niger-Congo groups stretch from Senegal to Tanzania and the east and west coast of southern Africa. The Nilo-Sahara groups are mainly in the regions of Chad, Sudan, Uganda and Kenya -- with some around the Nile River. The Khoisan are in the region of Namibia, Botswana and South Africa.

Africa is the only continent to record negative growth in the past two decades, many African countries are worse off today than they were twenty years ago. Today, they countries remain among the poorest and the least developed in the world. Large areas of the continent are uninhabited. While others have a high degree of concentration. The highest population densities are along the coast -- particularly in West Africa. There is a direct correlation between economic wealth and human resources. Railways also focus on the areas of population concentration. It should be note that the majority of railways were constructed as a means to get the resources out of Africa to benefit the European holdings. There are "development islands" surrounded by "seas" of underdeveloped areas. These development islands are in the same location as they would have been eighty years ago. Areas of commercial production count for only about 4% of the total area of Africa. The wealth is concentrated in a relatively small part of the continent. The development islands attract migrant labor linking the rural areas. The major area of urban concentration and commercial production play an important role in the overall development of Africa.

The initial distribution of natural resources and the natural environment have played important roles in this distribution of the wealth. The historical development of pre-colonial Africa, colonial domination and efforts of independent countries to achieve higher development also impacted these areas. Physical elements include towns, highways, dams, agricultural regions and other landscape features. The physical environment was often overemphasized as a factor. Climate and soil made development difficult in certain areas.

Africa is a large continent with few natural inlets or harbors. There are coastal plains with land rising to a plateau within a few miles of shore -- plateaus broken up with a series of basins. The smooth coastline made it difficult for Europeans to gain access to the interior to tap resources. Much of the coastline had desert like conditions or the presence of lagoons with swamps. Navigation on many of the rivers was difficult due to rapids. Access for the north was difficult, yet not impossible. Vast expanse of the Sahara was mastered by caravans of traders. In addition, the amount of precipitation has affected development. Rainfall is a key element in understanding climate conditions. Rainfall is distributed into wet and dry seasons --corresponding to summer and winter. In may parts of the continent the rain fall in five of six months of the wet season while the other months are dry --limiting agriculture, animal pasturing and human activity. Situated on the equator, Africa ranges from tropical climates near the equator to more temperate ones to the north and south. Relatively few areas are rainforests. Savannahs comprise one-third of the tropical area while two-fifths (three-fifths of the entire continent) of the tropical area is desert or steppe. Changes from one region to another are gradual. Boundaries of these regions shift with changing rainfall patterns or as farmers remove more trees for farming.

People have played an important role in the ecology of Africa -- changing the nature of the ecological zones. Distribution of large domestic animals is also related to water in the environment. The tsetse fly, parasite to both humans and cattle, are prevalent in humid areas (with more than forty inches of rainfall)-- making these areas not suitable for livestock such as horses and cattle, thus limiting the supply of natural fertilizer. The only milk in these regions is goats' milk. Small domestic animals such as chickens, sheep, goats, and a rare dwarf breed of cattle may be found. In some areas, people have been known to come up with ingenious methods of agriculture to make best use of tropical soils. While in other areas, increasing human and animal populations have contributed to soil erosion and accelerated the pace of desertification.

During the 1970’s the Sahelian region -- Chad, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Senegal -- gained world attention when reports of widespread crop failure resulted famine. International efforts provided relief to the region. Again, in 1984, drought hit Ethiopia and more recently in the Horn of Africa. (Note: An article in a recent Newsweek, written by a peace corps worker brought attention to this on-going cycle in Africa and the alarming impact it has had on the continual political turmoil and uprisings. Apparently, food relief goes first to the soldiers, then what is left over goes to the people, fueling continued battles and providing little relief for the starving women and children.) The problems in the Sahel and the Horn of Africa are due in part because of poor practices in agriculture, animal husbandry, overgrazing and the erosion and destruction of indigenous agricultural systems that had maintained a balance through generations. The countries of the Sahel continue to be among the poorest of the poor in Africa. While in the history of Africa --before European sea faring trade --parts of the Sahel were thriving trade centers with urban centers dominating commerce in Africa--connecting sub-Saharan Africa with north Africa and from east to west via the caravans and the Niger River. Evidence shows the conditions during this trans-Saharan trade were less severe. The decline of the Sahel was greatly impacted by colonial penetration along the coast.

"The climate differences between the northern and southern areas directly contribute to one of the most significant features of West African seasonal migration" (p. 33). Rainfall decreases moving south to north in West Africa --eighty inches or more falls in some parts along the coast with less than thirty inches inland. The drier northern areas of West Africa have also marked seasonal distribution of rainfall. All of this is affected by the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) marking the boundary between moist, maritime air mass and continental air mass. Many refer to the dry season as the "hungry season" because there is also lack of storage for food. Many migrate south to work on farms, returning to prepare their own fields for planting. The difference in climate strongly affects the economic and social life.

People play an important role in the ecology of Africa. Trees are removed for agricultural land; grasses are burned off to prepare their fields. Different crops are suited for different regions. In the savannah region, crops are cereals such as sorghum, millet, and eleusine -- and corn and manioc since the introduction form the New World in the fifteenth century. Societies in the forest area rely heavily of tuberous crops such as yams and taro. Other crops grown in Africa include sugar cane. Bananas, introduced from Asia, are also grown.

Population is also a factor. The growth in population outstrips the growth in economy. Although Africa has a relatively low population density, its population is growing faster than any other continent --stripping the carrying capacity of the land. This contributes to deforestation and accelerated desertification of the countryside. Governments have not adequately dealt with the situation and health conditions are uniformly poor. Africa continues to have one of the highest infant mortality and morbidity rates. Children under the age of fifteen continue to make up 45% of the population. The combination of population, environmental degradation, and politics has contributed in civil unrest in several countries --including Somalia and Rwanda.

There are many health-related problems compounded with inadequate treatment and research facilities. Large areas are still affected by the tsetse fly carrying trypanosomiasis. Also called sleeping sickness, the disease impairs both humans and animals, for whom it is usually fatal. Malaria remains a problem affecting large segments of the population. In addition, the spread of AIDS is in epidemic proportions in many areas of Africa seriously limiting, along with other health factors, the full use of human resources. Another hazard is the blackfly along the riverbanks in West Africa. The blackfly spreads a disease known as river blindness or onchocerciasis. The disease spreads in zones. The closer the village is to the river, the higher the concentration of the disease. Along the White Volta alone, fifty villages have been abandoned. In 1974, a major effort was launched to control the blackfly. The program has been successful to an extent in making the lands appropriate for settlement. Current problems facing health care are where to concentrate the efforts.

To a certain extent, Africa remains a colonial map, with national boundaries bearing little relation to natural divisions (mountain, rivers) or to indigenous concepts of space (ethnic areas, traditional kingdoms). Present day urban centers were designed with colonial objectives in mind. "They were built to facilitate colonial administration and efficient economic exploitation" (p. 43). Until recently, it was difficult to travel overland along the West African coastal countries. Following independence, governments worked on programs and projects to build infrastructures aimed at increasing production. Emphasis on exports was a central feature of the post-colonial economic policy. The record of the last thirty years shows little progress. Major exports continue to be the same. Most countries are still overspecialized, depending on one or a few products. The physical infrastructure remains much the same as in colonial times. New patterns of social order, political institutions and economic institutions consistent with objectives of independence must be developed. Agriculture has decline --an agricultural continent, it now imports much of its food.